Map data and methods

This page lists every region and event on the spread map, with its sources, in text, and the follower counts behind it: every state from 1950 to 2000, and the largest countries for each of five faiths in 2010 and 2020. Where a faith's own account and historians' account differ, both are listed.

How the regions are drawn

Each region comes from a source's description of where a faith was present. The site builds it from today's states and provinces that the description names or covers, and never traces it from a published map. Where a source names a town, the region is the state or province that contains it.
Regions are labeled with the place names the sources use (Aksum, Judah, the Ganges basin), not modern ones, and every region is approximate.
"Present" means a source describes the faith there. "Prevalent" means a source says most people there followed the faith, or, where people commonly took part in more than one tradition, that most took part in it. The same rule applies to all six faiths. A ruler's adoption of a faith doesn't by itself make a region prevalent.
Confidence (high, medium, or low) is how far that account's own sources agree on the place and date. It drops one level where a source describes the place only broadly. Low confidence is drawn with the same white stripes for every faith.
A majority figure counts for a step when the year it speaks of is within 10 years of the step, and each note names that year. A majority carries forward to later steps only where a source says it lasted. A figure for a larger area, such as a province or a continent, counts for the places inside it, at medium confidence, unless figures for the parts show otherwise; the note then says the figure is for the larger area.
A region can change between present and prevalent from one step to the next because sources state a majority at some steps and not at others; the change does not by itself mean the faith's share changed.
The map also draws on geographies and encyclopedias written between 1699 and 1911, mostly for the steps from 1700 to 1900, cited for what they report and read the same way for every faith they name. The search of them for statements of a majority has so far covered Gordon's geography of 1699, Moll's of 1701, the Encyclopaedia Britannica's articles of 1810 and 1853 to 1860 on Europe, Asia, Hindostan, Persia, Arabia, Turkey, Burma, Siam, Ceylon, Tibet, Abyssinia, and Egypt, and its 1911 articles on Turkey, its provinces, and Cyprus. Its 1850s articles on China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Central Asia, Afghanistan, North Africa, the Malay islands, and Latin America, and its 1911 articles on other lands, are still to be read, so the map shows no majority from them yet.
A blank area means that no source in hand places the faith there at that step. Some blanks follow a source's record that a community ended or was barred, and the list below says so; a blank is never by itself this site's statement that the faith was absent. "Present" means a source describes the faith there; it does not mean the faith was a minority. The blank places are listed below, under "Not yet sourced".

The tradition's account and historians' account

Where the two accounts agree, the map draws one shape. Where they differ on where or when a faith was present, and each has its own source, the map draws both, in the same color, with edges of equal weight: long dashes for the tradition's account and short dashes for historians'. A faith's own sources and historians' sources are treated alike. Where only one account has a source for a place or date, it is told in an event's note instead.

There is one exception, the same for every faith. A community's own tradition of when its faith reached it is drawn for the tradition's account alone, at low confidence, wherever the tradition and a source for it give a place and a time. It is drawn at the steps the tradition's date reaches. It is also drawn at later steps where its sources carry the community on and do not say it ended, until another shape covers the place, usually the one shape both accounts share. The region's note gives historians' view, or says that the historians' sources found are silent.

Accounts that reach back before each faith's community are not mapped, for any faith. The History pages tell them.

The layers can overlap. Pew Research Center counts everyone who identifies as Christian as Christian, and its 2011 report named Latter-day Saints among the Christian groups it counts.⁸⁷⁴¹ The Christian layer and Pew's follower counts follow that counting, so where both layers are drawn, as in Utah, they show the same communities twice. This follows a way of counting; it is not a ruling on whether Latter-day Saints are Christians, a question the guide pages leave to each tradition's own account.

Buddhism: The Lotus Sutra, a Mahayana scripture, teaches that the Buddha reached awakening immeasurably long before his life in India; that account is not mapped.²³
Christianity: The history the Old Testament tells before Jesus is not mapped as part of the Christian layer.⁴
Hinduism: The teaching, held by many Hindus, that the eternal dharma (Sanatana Dharma) has no beginning is not mapped.⁵
Islam: Islam's accounts of the prophets before Muhammad are not mapped.⁶
Judaism: The Torah's accounts of the patriarchs are not mapped.⁷
Latter-day Saints: The ancient peoples of the Book of Mormon are not mapped: The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints holds that those events took place in the ancient Americas and takes no position on specific places.⁸

Regions by faith

Buddhism

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
500 BCE	The Ganges basin	Present	Low	Both	Theravada reckoning places the Buddha's death in 544 or 543 BCE, and most Western and Indian scholars, Bechert reports, in 487 or 486 BCE; on these dates the teaching began before this step. Mulasarvastivada texts and two references in the Dipavamsa give 368 BCE, Bechert argues for 420 to 350 BCE, and Siderits writes that many scholars now hold about 405 BCE; on these dates it began after. The regions are those of the places Bechert names in the Buddha's travels: Kapilavastu (near today's border of India and Nepal), Sravasti, Varanasi, Rajagrha, Vaisali, Kausambi, and Nalanda.⁹¹⁰¹¹¹²¹³¹⁴¹⁵¹⁶¹⁷
500 BCE to 250 BCE	The Shwedagon, on Singuttara Hill	Present	Low	Tradition's account	Burmese accounts, Strachan writes, date the Shwedagon pagoda to 585 BCE, and tradition holds that the Buddha gave eight of his hairs to two Mon merchants, who returned to their land and dedicated the pagoda; Myanmar's entry on UNESCO's Tentative List gives the Shwedagon, in Yangon, a traditional history reaching back to the Buddha's time, and writes that its devotional practices continue in an unbroken, uninterrupted tradition since the pagoda's foundation, so the founding is read as continuing to these steps. The same entry writes that research by historians and archaeologists dates the first building to between the 6th and 10th centuries CE, with a recorded history from the 14th century; the historians' sources found place no Buddhist community there at these steps. From 1 CE the tradition's shape for the Golden Peninsula covers Yangon. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is.¹⁸¹⁹²⁰
250 BCE	The Ganges basin	Present	High	Both	Every date Bechert reports for the Buddha's death, from the traditions (2420 to 290 BCE) and from scholars at a 1988 symposium (486 to 261 BCE), falls before this step. Already by Ashoka's time, in the mid-third century BCE, Gomez writes, there is evidence of a flourishing veneration of relics, often with pilgrimage to the sites of the Buddha's birth, awakening, first sermon, and death, and a Theravada chronology places Ashoka's council at Pataliputra (Patna) in 250 BCE. The regions are those of these sites: Lumbini, where Bechert writes that Ashoka placed a pillar commemorating the birth in 248 BCE, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kusinara, and Pataliputra.⁹²¹²²²³²⁴²⁵²⁶²⁷
1 CE	Khotan (the Li country)	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Annals of the Li Country, a Khotanese Buddhist history kept in Tibetan, whose composition its translator places by its own reckoning at about 1046, hold that the religion first arose in Khotan in the fifth year of the king Vijaya-Sambhava, who built the first monastery there for the monk Vairocana, and go on to tell of the monasteries his subjects and later kings built; Thomas, their translator, works the annals' chronology out to about 210 BCE and calls the date improbable, giving about 59 BCE, by another reckoning, as a more likely date for Vijaya-Sambhava's accession. The row reads the founding as continuing to 1 CE, since the annals carry the religion on through later reigns. Hartmann writes that the precise date of the first establishment is unknown and that Chinese sources place a Buddhist community at Khotan by the second century CE; Canti writes that it is possible that Buddhism had reached Khotan during the first century BCE, even if it was not widely adopted, and that no archaeological evidence for stupas or monasteries yet predates the late third century. The historians' sources found date no community there at 1 CE, and the shared shape begins at 250 CE. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the annals date the founding by a king's reign, not a year.²⁸²⁹³⁰³¹
1 CE to 500 CE	India, from the southern tip to the northwest	Present	Medium	Both	From the second century BCE through the first century CE, Reynolds and Hallisey write, Buddhism became a powerful religious force in virtually all of India, from the southern tip of the peninsula to the Indo-Greek areas in the northwest, and before the sixth century it flourished there. Gomez finds that it reached India's frontiers by the middle of the second century BCE, and Britannica places Gandhara, home from the first century BCE of an art that mixed Indian Buddhist and Greco-Roman styles, around Peshawar and Taxila. Medium because the area is described broadly; the building blocks read India as the subcontinent, as the mention of the northwest implies, and leave out the northeastern hills, Ladakh, and the islands.³²²¹³³³⁴³⁵
1 CE to 1250	The Golden Peninsula (Suvannabhumi)	Present	Low	Tradition's account	In the Theravada account, recorded in its chronicles, Ashoka's missionaries Sona and Uttara brought Theravada to the Golden Peninsula; a Theravada chronology dates Ashoka's envoys to Lower Burma and Central Thailand to 247 BCE, and Swearer writes that a Thai or a Burmese most likely thinks of his country's Buddhism as a continuation of that tradition, so the shape runs to 1250, the last step before the shared row covers both countries at 1500. Historians' evidence there comes later: Swearer dates Buddha images near Nakorn Prathom to the fourth and fifth centuries CE, and Crosby writes that archaeology suggests a piecemeal arrival, with Theravada seeming to flourish in parts of Burma and Thailand from the fourth century. Low because the sources name the place only broadly and in different terms; Central Thailand is drawn as the lower Chao Phraya plain.²²³⁶³⁷
1 CE to 1800	Sri Lanka	Present	Medium	Both	Reynolds and Hallisey write that Buddhism became a powerful religious force in Sri Lanka from the second century BCE through the first century CE, that it flourished there before the sixth century, and that from the tenth century it established itself there as the dominant religious tradition, until colonial rule disestablished it. A Theravada chronology dates the Mahavihara at Anuradhapura to 240 BCE and the dying out of Anuradhapura's monastic communities to 1050, and follows the island's sangha through a revival in 1236, two centuries of decline under Portuguese, Dutch, and British rule, new ordination lines in 1753, 1803, and 1862, and a nationwide revival that began in 1873. For 1800, the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Asia writes that the natives of the island were worshippers of the Buddha, and that the Sinhalese, its original inhabitants, were Buddhists of the purest source; it names a people and gives no share. Medium because the sources describe Sri Lanka as a whole, and the building block is today's whole country; 1850 is drawn in rows of their own.³²³⁶²²³⁸
250 CE	Kapisi (Begram)	Present	Medium	Both	Hartmann writes that the tradition connected with Kanishka, the Kushan ruler of the first half of the second century CE, suggests that Buddhism flourished under the Kushans, whose rule Teiser dates from 128 BCE to 450 CE, a span that includes this step; Kanishka appears to have built stupas and a monastery near Kapisi (Begram). Medium because the dated evidence at Kapisi itself is about a century older than the step, the statement on the Kushans is for their realm as a whole, and Hartmann finds that very few datable monasteries seem to go back to this period, which hints at the possibility that institutional Buddhism was less widespread than often supposed.²⁹³⁹⁴⁰
250 CE	Luoyang, Pengcheng, and the Tonkin region	Present	Medium	Both	By the end of the Han dynasty, Teiser writes, Buddhist communities of foreign monks, native monks, and local lay supporters were established in at least three areas: Luoyang, Pengcheng, and the Tonkin region. Teiser places Pengcheng "in the east" and at Datong, in Shanxi, while Britannica places Pengcheng at today's Xuzhou, in Jiangsu in eastern China; the row follows Britannica, which fits Teiser's "in the east", and is medium because the sources place Pengcheng differently. The Tonkin region is drawn with the bounds Britannica gives for Tonkin in the French colonial period (northern Vietnam, north of the Ma River); it continues in the Vietnam row from 500 CE, and Luoyang and Pengcheng continue in the China row.³⁹⁴¹⁴²
250 CE to 750 CE	Khotan and the Silk Road oases	Present	Medium	Both	Chinese sources, Hartmann writes, place a Buddhist community at Khotan by the second century CE, and Khotan was a well-established center of Mahayana study by the third; the cave monasteries of Kucha, Karashahr, and Turfan, on the northern route, became strongholds of the Sarvastivada school. Buddhism came to an end at Khotan around 950, so this row ends at 750 CE and a narrower row follows. Medium because the building block, all of Xinjiang, the region Hartmann names, is larger than the oases around the Tarim basin where he places Buddhism.²⁹
500 CE	Koguryo and Paekche	Present	Medium	Both	Korean histories record that Buddhism reached the Koguryo court in 372 and Paekche in 384, Buswell writes, and it spread rapidly through Paekche. The building blocks take the northern half of the peninsula, which Britannica says Koguryo ruled at its height, and Paekche's southwest, leaving out Koguryo's lands in Manchuria and the southeast, where Silla officially embraced Buddhism only in 529. Medium because the kingdoms' extent is described broadly.⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁵
500 CE	Silla	Present	Low	Both	Buswell writes that it was not until 529, following the martyrdom of Ich'adon, that Silla, the last of the three kingdoms to consolidate its power, officially embraced Buddhism, probably for political reasons, and he dates the Three Kingdoms period of Korean Buddhism from the late fourth century to 668. UNESCO's entry for the Gyeongju Historic Areas calls Gyeongju the capital city of the Silla dynasty, and GeoNames places Gyeongju in the North Gyeongsang block, the block drawn. Buswell describes no ban on Buddhist practice and no expulsion of Buddhists in Silla before 529. Low because the step rests on events 29 years after it, and the source says nothing else of Buddhists in Silla before them.⁴³⁴⁶⁴⁷
500 CE to 750 CE	Sri Ksetra (Prome)	Present	Medium	Both	Pali inscriptions at Hmawza, the ancient Pyu capital of Sri Ksetra in lower Burma, indicate Theravada by the fifth or sixth century, Swearer writes, and Tang chronicles say Buddhism flourished there in the eighth and ninth centuries; Crosby writes that Theravada seems to have flourished in parts of Burma from the fourth century. Medium because the sources' dates for the start differ.³⁷³⁶⁴⁸
500 CE to 1000 CE	Nakorn Prathom (Dvaravati)	Present	High	Both	Buddha images near Nakorn Prathom date from the fourth to fifth century, Swearer writes, and archaeology there points to a flourishing Mon Buddhist culture in the region known as Dvaravati, where, Crosby writes, Theravada seems to have become particularly strong. Britannica dates the kingdom of Dvaravati from the sixth to the late eleventh century.³⁷³⁶⁴⁹⁵⁰
500 CE to 1250	Champa	Present	Low	Both	UNESCO's entry for My Son writes that from the 4th to the 13th centuries CE a culture on the coast of Vietnam owed its spiritual origins to Hinduism, and that Mahayana Buddhism entered Cham culture, probably from the 4th century, and became strongly established in the north of the kingdom, though Shaiva Hinduism remained the established state religion. The row reads that span as the Hinduism layer's Champa row reads it, for 500 CE to 1250. Swearer writes that Buddha images and monastery foundations of the ninth century have been found in Quang Nam Province, the block drawn, and Sanderson dates Buddhist steles in Champa to 829, 875, 902, 911, and 1092. Low because the source gives the start as probable and places Buddhism's strongest hold only in the north of the kingdom, broadly.⁵¹³⁷⁵²
500 CE to 1600	Vietnam	Present	Medium	Both	Until the eleventh century, Swearer writes, the Vietnamese were effectively a group within the Chinese empire, and Mahayana Buddhism was certainly part of the Chinese cultural influence; the row reads this as a span that carries the steps from 500 CE to 1000 CE. The Chan (Thien) school, said to have been first established in 580, was the major Buddhist tradition in Vietnam, and Buddhism continued to be important among the masses after the elite came to prefer Confucianism. He also writes that the classical Southeast Asian synthesis of religion and culture, which he dates from the eleventh century and of which he calls Theravada Buddhism a major part, has given the cultures of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam a sense of identity and sustained them to the present, while Vietnam has been largely left out of the story of the classical Buddhist states because of the predominance of Hinduism among the Chams in early Vietnamese history and China's overwhelming cultural influence. The row reads his statement that Buddhism continued among the masses, with the synthesis carried on to the present, as carrying the steps from 1250 to 1600. Teiser places Buddhist communities in the Tonkin region by the end of the Han and writes that China ruled it from 111 BCE to 939 CE; the Han row draws it at 250 CE. Before 1700 the row is drawn with Britannica's colonial-period bounds for Tonkin; Quang Nam, in the center of today's Vietnam, is drawn in the Champa row to 1250, and the sources say nothing of the other central and southern blocks at these steps. Medium because the sources describe Vietnam broadly and give the Chan founding date only as traditional. 1700 is drawn in the row for the peninsula beyond the Ganges, and the later steps in a row of their own, both as today's Vietnam.³⁷³⁹⁴²
500 CE to 1700	Northern and southern China	Present	Medium	Both	Before the sixth century, Reynolds and Hallisey write, Buddhism became firmly entrenched in both northern and southern China, and after about 500 it became the preeminent religion of the reunified empire. Teiser calls the Sui and Tang dynasties (581 to 907) China's Buddhist age, writes that the first emperors of the Song dynasty (960 to 1279) were lavish patrons of Buddhism and that many traditions prospered under the Yuan (1206 to 1368), and writes that in late imperial times, under the Ming (1368 to 1644) and the Qing (1644 to 1911), traces of Buddhism could be found almost everywhere, not always recognized as such, perhaps because it was so pervasive. Medium because the sources describe China broadly: the building blocks are the provinces of China proper, leaving out the regions drawn in other rows (Xinjiang, Tibet, Qinghai, and Inner Mongolia) and the northeast, Yunnan, and the islands. 1800 to 1900 are drawn in rows of their own.³²³⁹
500 CE to 1900	The Kathmandu valley	Present	High	Both	Sanderson writes that in the Kathmandu valley, where Buddhism and Shaivism coexisted among the Newars down to the present, there is ample evidence of royal support for Buddhism: Manadeva, whose dated inscriptions run from 459 to 505 or 506, founded a monastery bearing his name; Xuanzang reported in the first half of the seventh century that the king of Nepal was a sincere believer; and the kings between the Licchavis, last recorded in 737, and the Mallas (1200 to 1768), though mostly Shaiva, supported Buddhist institutions. Lodrick describes Newar religion as a mix of Mahayana Buddhism, Hinduism, and older beliefs.⁵²⁵³⁵⁴
750 CE	Central Java under the Sailendras	Present	Medium	Both	In a passage on the seventh century, Swearer writes that I-ching, who spent several months in Java, indicates that both Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism were present at that time, and that under the Sailendra kings, great patrons of the Pala form of Mahayana, Borobudur was built on the Kedu Plain in the mid-eighth century. Medium because I-ching's report names only Java, and "mid-eighth century" does not show whether the work had begun by 750. The row covers this one step because the later evidence, two inscriptions of the late eighth century recording the building of a Tara temple at Kalasan and an image of Manjusri at Kelunak, falls between steps; Swearer's sketch of the classical period, from the eleventh century, names "Śrīvijaya in Java", though elsewhere he places Srivijaya in Sumatra, and no source found otherwise describes Buddhism in Java at 1000 CE.³⁷⁵⁵
750 CE	Central Tibet	Present	Low	Both	Tibetan tradition, as Kapstein reports it, holds that the emperor Songtsen Gampo (Srong btsan sgam po, about 617 to 649) and the inner circle of his court embraced Buddhism, inspired by the devotion of his Chinese and Nepalese queens, and he writes that the image of the Buddha his Chinese bride brought to Lhasa, the Jowo, remains Tibet's holiest object of pilgrimage. Kapstein judges it unlikely that the faith made much progress in Tibet for another half century or more, and dates the first clear evidence of Buddhist advances in central Tibet to the reign of Trhi Detsuktsen (Khri Lde gtsug btsan, 704 to 755), which contains this step, when the Chinese princess of Jincheng, who arrived in 710, invited Khotanese monks who formed the first community of the sangha there. After her death in 739 the foreign monks were expelled, and the court that enthroned the next king, Trhi Songdetsen, in 755 was hostile to Buddhism; he rescinded the ban on Buddhist rites, converted in 762, and built Samye, Tibet's first monastery, about 779. Low because the monks were expelled and Buddhist rites banned for a time near the step, which rests on the reign that contains it and on a royal patron again within 30 years, as Silla's does at 500 CE. GeoNames places Samye in the Xizang block, drawn for central Tibet.⁵⁶⁵⁷
750 CE	Kashmir	Present	Medium	Both	From the account of the Kashmiri historian Kalhana, Sanderson writes that the Karkota kings of Kashmir, or those close to them, established several Buddhist foundations, among them the King's Monastery that Lalitaditya (about 725 to 761 or 762) founded and richly endowed, with a large caitya and a huge Buddha image, at his new capital, Parihasapura. Gomez writes that, as the Turks advanced, the last great scholars of India fled Kashmir and Bihar. Medium because no inscriptions survive from the dynasty's reigns, so the evidence is a historian's account, and Kashmir is drawn as the whole Jammu and Kashmir block.⁵²²¹
750 CE to 1000 CE	Bihar and Bengal under the Palas	Present	Medium	Both	After Harsha's death, Gomez writes, Indian Buddhism could depend only on the royal patronage of the Pala dynasty of Bihar and Bengal, whose universities included Vikramashila (about 800), which saw its final glory in the eleventh century; Reynolds and Hallisey date the Palas' royal and popular support from the eighth to the twelfth century. Medium because Bengal is a broad area, drawn here as West Bengal and Bangladesh.²¹³²
750 CE to 1000 CE	Phu Kamprah (That Phanom)	Present	Low	Both	The Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre's record of Phra That Phnom writes that the stupa's architecture and other evidence point to its having perhaps been built in the 9th to 10th centuries CE at the latest, and that scholars speculate that its dome dates from around the 8th century; the row reads the 8th century as reaching 750 CE and the 10th as reaching 1000 CE, centuries being the only dates the record gives for the early building. The Uranghathat chronicle, written in the Lan Xang period, tells that after the Buddha's death Mahakassapa brought relics of his chest bones to a stupa at Phu Kamprah built by five kings, who were later reborn as arahants and restored it again; the record adds that the stupa lay abandoned for centuries until the restoration works of the Lan Xang period, and gives no dates between the enshrinement and those works, so the two accounts do not differ at these steps. Low because the dates rest on the building's style, the dome's date is given as scholars' speculation, and a comparative table in UNESCO's entry for the Shwedagon gives Phra That Phanom an approximate date of the 14th century CE.⁵⁸¹⁹⁵⁹
750 CE to 1000 CE	Srivijaya (Palembang)	Present	High	Both	By the seventh century, Swearer writes, Buddhism was apparently flourishing in the Sumatra of Srivijaya, where an inscription of 684 names a Buddhist king; Britannica places Srivijaya's origin at Palembang, writes that it flourished between the 7th and the 13th centuries and adhered to Mahayana Buddhism, and dates the Chola seizure of Palembang to 1025. High because Britannica's span covers both steps and Swearer's seventh-century evidence agrees; the 1250 step, when Britannica describes a much reduced kingdom, has a row of its own.³⁷⁶⁰⁶¹
750 CE to 1600	Japan	Present	Medium	Both	During the Nara period (710 to 784), Ruppert writes, Buddhist institutions began to flourish on a much larger scale and Buddhist practices came to have an impact on the general populace in the isles; the ruler Shomu began to establish temples and convents in every province of the realm. Medium because Ruppert speaks of every province of the realm, and later of outlying regions, without saying how far they reached; the building blocks leave out Hokkaido and Okinawa, which the sources do not describe.⁶²
750 CE to 1900	Korea	Present	Medium	Both	After Silla unified the peninsula in 668, Buswell writes, Buddhism's fortunes expanded on an unprecedented scale, and its schools carried on under Koryo (937 to 1392). Under the Choson dynasty (1392 to 1910), Confucian policies restricted the sangha and its fortunes waned, but its teachers carried on, and in 1895 the court lifted the ban on monks in the capital, Seoul. Medium because the source describes the peninsula as a whole, and the building blocks are today's two whole countries.⁴³
1000 CE to 1250	Eastern Java	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson writes that Airlangga (about 1010 to 1050), founder of the kingdom of Kahuripan in eastern Java, was consecrated king in 1019 or 1020 by Buddhist, Shaiva, and brahmin dignitaries, and that the kings of the Singhasari period (1222 to 1292) supported both Shaivism and Buddhism. Medium because the evidence is royal, the consecration falls about twenty years after the 1000 CE step, and "eastern Java" is broad.⁵²
1000 CE to 1250	Pagan (Bagan) and the Mon lands	Present	Medium	Both	In the tenth and eleventh centuries, Swearer writes, the Buddhism present among the people of the Pagan and Irrawaddy basin seems to have been dominated by an eclectic Mahayana and Tantric form, while for the Mon of lower Burma, with centers such as Thaton, the evidence suggests a strong Pali Theravada presence; he dates the classical period of Southeast Asian Buddhism, which began with states such as Pagan, from the eleventh to the fifteenth century, and the Sinhala Theravada lineage became normative at Pagan under Narapatisithu (1173 to 1210). A Theravada chronology dates the Mongol looting of Pagan, which began its decline, to 1287. Medium because the source gives no date for the Mon centers' Buddhism before Aniruddha's conquest of Thaton in the eleventh century.³⁷²²⁶³⁶⁴
1000 CE to 1250	The oases of the northern Silk Road	Present	Medium	Both	After Buddhism ended at Khotan around 950, Hartmann writes, it survived for a few more centuries only on the northern route of the Silk Road, though it must already have been in decline; at Turfan a Uighur kingdom stood from about 850 to 1250, and Buddhism disappeared there by the end of the fifteenth century at the latest, so the row ends at 1250. Medium because the building block, all of Xinjiang, is far larger than the oases of the northern route.²⁹
1000 CE to 1800	Tibet	Present	High	Both	After the Tibetan empire collapsed in the mid-ninth century, Kapstein writes, monastic Buddhism was preserved among Tibetans solely in the far eastern districts, in today's Qinghai and Gansu, where a monk later ordained seekers from central and western Tibet, sparking the late-tenth-century monastic revival; Tantric traditions appear to have flourished after the empire's fall. Later orders flourished, and the fifth Dalai Lama (1617 to 1682) supported mass monasticism in all parts of the country; for 1800, Kapstein writes that from the fifth Dalai Lama's time the successive rebirths of the Panchen Lamas were recognized at Tashilhunpo, in Tsang, and, in his account of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, that Kumbum, near Xining in today's Qinghai, became an important center of learning. The building blocks are the regions Kapstein names (Qinghai, and central and western Tibet in Xizang), with Gansu drawn in the China row. 1850 and 1900 are drawn in rows of their own.⁵⁶
1250	Haripunjaya, Nakorn Sri Dhammaraja, and Cambodia	Present	Medium	Both	Nakorn Sri Dhammaraja was an important center of Theravada by the eleventh century, Swearer writes, and northern Thai chronicles tell of the twelfth-century king Adicca of Haripunjaya (Lamphun) building a shrine for a Buddha relic; he dates the gradual shift to a Sinhala Theravada orthodoxy in Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia from the late eleventh to the early thirteenth century and onward. In Cambodia, he writes, Theravada existed beside Mahayana and Brahmanism in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Jayavarman VII (1181 to 1218) patronized Mahayana, and Angkor was among the states of the classical period of Southeast Asian Buddhism, which lasted from the eleventh to the fifteenth century. Medium because the Haripunjaya account rests on chronicles and Cambodia is drawn whole.³⁷⁶⁵⁶⁶
1250	Srivijaya (Palembang)	Present	Low	Both	Britannica writes that Srivijaya, a kingdom that originated at Palembang, flourished between the 7th and the 13th centuries and adhered to Mahayana Buddhism, and that by the end of the 12th century it had been reduced to a small kingdom, its dominant role in Sumatra taken by Malayu, based in Jambi. Low because the source does not say where the reduced kingdom lay at this step or describe its Buddhism then, and Swearer writes that Islam spread in Malaysia and Indonesia during the thirteenth century.⁶⁰³⁷⁶¹
1250 to 1900	East Bengal	Present	Low	Both	Gomez writes that after the last days of the great monastic institutions, in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, Indian Buddhism lingered on in isolated pockets, and, in his section on the frontier, that some Theravadin Buddhists also survived in East Bengal, most of them taking refuge in India after the partition and some remaining in Bangladesh and Assam. The row reads that survival, from the decline of the monasteries to the partition, as carrying these steps in East Bengal; he names Assam only as a place where some remained after the partition, so it is not drawn. Low because the source dates neither the community's start nor any place in East Bengal, drawn as Bangladesh.²¹
1500	Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	By the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Swearer writes, a Sinhala Theravada orthodoxy was the primary, though not the only, form of Buddhism in Burma, Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. He writes that the Sinhala order became dominant as the classical states rose, from the mid-twelfth to the end of the fifteenth century, and that Sinhala Buddhism "became the religion of the masses" through the worship of relics and images and popular, syncretic devotions. That sentence gives no date of its own; the row reads it as reached by the end of that span, which closes at this step. Because that popular religion mixed Buddhist, Brahmanic, and local practice, this row reads it under the rule's second clause, that where people commonly took part in more than one tradition, most took part in it, at the step that closes the fifteenth century. Medium because the source names the four countries only as wholes, and the building blocks are today's countries.³⁷
1500	Majapahit, eastern Java	Present	Low	Both	Sanderson dates the Majapahit period, with its royal support of both Shaivism and Buddhism, to 1293 to about 1500, and writes that the kingdom had one superintendent of religion for the Buddhists and another for the Shaivas. Swearer writes that by the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries what is now Indonesia, except Bali, had been overrun by Islam, so the sources differ at this step; low for that reason.⁵²³⁷
1600	Burma	Present	Medium	Both	Swearer follows Burma's Theravada from Dhammaceti's reign at Pegu (1472 to 1492) to the end of Buddhist kingship in 1885; Crosby calls Theravada the dominant form of Buddhism in Burma today. No source found states a majority at this step or says that what the 1500 row reads as a majority lasted (Swearer's remark that the classical synthesis has sustained these cultures to the present speaks of identity, not of how many people followed Buddhism), so it shows Buddhism as present, since a majority is carried to later steps only where a source says it lasted; medium because the sources describe Burma only as a whole. 1700 is drawn in the row for the peninsula beyond the Ganges.³⁷³⁶
1600	Mongolia	Present	Medium	Both	From 1580 to 1920, Atwood writes, Tibetan-style Buddhism dominated Mongolia and touched every aspect of life, after Altan Khan's meeting with the Third Dalai Lama in 1578. Medium because he dates the Gelug missions to Mongolia proper only to "the seventeenth century", and at this step he names no place there.⁶⁷
1600	Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia	Present	Medium	Both	Swearer follows Theravada in Thailand from Ayutthaya, which dominated central Thailand until 1767, to the reforms of Mongkut (1851 to 1868) and Chulalongkorn (1868 to 1910), and writes that from the late fourteenth century Buddhism in Laos and Cambodia was primarily influenced by the Tai; Crosby calls Theravada the dominant form of Buddhism in all three today. No source found states a majority at this step or says that what the 1500 row reads as a majority lasted (Swearer's remark that the classical synthesis has sustained these cultures to the present speaks of identity, not of how many people followed Buddhism), so it shows Buddhism as present, since a majority is carried to later steps only where a source says it lasted; medium because the sources describe the three countries only as wholes. 1700 is drawn in the row for the peninsula beyond the Ganges.³⁷³⁶
1600 to 1900	Inner Mongolia	Present	Medium	Both	Altan Khan, at Hohhot, turned to Tibetan lamas after 1571, and in 1578 he and the nobility of southwestern Inner Mongolia met the Third Dalai Lama, beginning what Atwood calls the Second Conversion; Gelug missionaries reached eastern Inner Mongolia during the seventeenth century. Medium because at 1600 the source describes only the southwest, and the building block is all of Inner Mongolia.⁶⁷⁵⁶
1600 to 1900	Nepal beyond the Kathmandu valley	Present	Low	Both	Gomez writes that Nepalese Buddhists produced the Svayambhu Purana, which he dates to about the fifteenth century, and that Himalayan Buddhism of direct Indian ancestry remains only in Nepal, where it can be observed even today; no source in hand records the community's end between. His passage names no place in Nepal, so the row reads both statements for today's country, by this site's reading. The row reads two mentions of Buddhists in Nepal a century or more apart, each statement about Nepal as a whole counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The Kathmandu valley has a row of its own.²¹
1700	Leaotung and Junnan, with Hainan (Gordon's China)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that of the gods the Chinese worshipped, one of the two of chief note was Fo or Foë (a name the scan's text garbles and its page image shows), to whom many temples were raised and whose moral teachings the bonzes, or priests, urged on the people; Teiser writes that Fo is the Chinese rendering of Buddha. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith: these are the blocks of the sixteen provinces into which Gordon divides China, in a table whose names the scan's text garbles and its page image shows, that the row for China proper leaves out, Leaotung (Liaoning) and Junnan (Yunnan), with Hainan read as part of Quantung (Guangdong), by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same passage at this step. Present because Gordon's word for the country's religion is not tied to a number of people; medium because the source describes the country broadly.⁶⁸³⁹
1700	Mongolia	Present	High	Both	During the seventeenth century, Atwood writes, Gelug missionaries expanded into Mongolia proper and monastic institutions rapidly took shape all over Mongolia; by 1700 other Buddhist orders had essentially disappeared there. Shamanism held on longer, so this step shows Buddhism as present.⁶⁷
1700	The peninsula of India beyond the Ganges	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the inhabitants of the peninsula of India beyond the Ganges, whose states he names as Pegu, with Arakan and other lands under it, Tonkin and Cochinchina, and Siam, generally followed religions other than Islam and Christianity; he reports that the people of Siam were said to hold to the passing of souls into new bodies, and that the priests of Pegu were of three orders. The row reads his word for Buddhists through sources that tie the religion of these lands to Buddhism: the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Asia writes, in an account of the Birmans that it takes from Michael Symes's embassy, that the image of the Buddha was the chief object of worship in all the countries between Bengal and China, and, of Tonkin, that the religion of the country appeared to be the Buddha's; Swearer writes that Sinhala Buddhism, the normative tradition in Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, became the religion of the masses in mainland Southeast Asia, and that in Vietnam Buddhism continued to be important among the masses. Since people there commonly took part in more than one tradition, the row reads Gordon's word as saying that most took part in Buddhism. Gordon's own bounds also take in Asem (Assam) and Tipra (Tripura), which he names among the states that acknowledged Pegu's sovereignty, and Malacca, where he places the Malay tongue. The blocks are Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam: Gordon's Tonkin and Cochinchina are read as today's Vietnam, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads Neill and Mullins's Vietnam at this step. Malacca is not drawn because Swearer writes that Malaysia was affected by the advent and spread of Islam during the thirteenth century, and no cited source ties its people to Buddhism; and Assam and Tripura because the 1810 statement comes from the article's account of the Birman empire, and the row reads it for lands outside that empire only where another cited source describes Buddhism there, as Swearer does for Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam, while none in hand describes Buddhists in Assam or Tripura at or near this step. Burma's census of 1901 does not point the other way. Medium because the source describes the peninsula as a whole and gives no count.⁶⁸³⁸³⁷⁶⁹
1700 to 1850	Japan	Prevalent	High	Both	The Tokugawa shogunate (1600 to 1867) required all Japanese households to register with and become parishioners of their local temple, a system universal by roughly the 1660s, and Buddhism "became an integral part of ritual life for virtually all Japanese", Ruppert writes. He notes that Buddhism in Japan was not historically a creedal faith of the kind common to monotheistic religions, and buddhas and kami were long venerated together, so this row uses the rule's second clause: most people took part in Buddhism.⁶²
1800	China	Prevalent	Low	Both	The 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia, which gives no year for the passage and writes in the present tense, writes that the Chinese admit no religious establishment and tolerate all religions, and that the greater number of them are supposed to be of the same religion as the Birmans, whom it describes as followers of the Buddha; earlier in the article it reports the Birmans' assertion that the Chinese are Buddhists. Teiser writes that under the Qing (1644 to 1911) traces of Buddhism could be found almost everywhere. Since people in China commonly took part in more than one tradition, the row reads the article's word as saying that most took part in Buddhism. Low because the words the reading rests on ("of the same religion" and "Birmans") are damaged in the scan and are read here with the help of the article's earlier passage.³⁸³⁹
1800 to 1850	Burma (the Birman empire)	Present	Medium	Both	For 1800, the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica, in an account it takes from Michael Symes's embassy and gives no year for, writes that the Birmans followed the Buddha, not Brahma, and that they had received their religion from Ceylon; for 1850, the eighth edition's article on Burmah, in a volume dated 1854, writes that the Burmese followed the Buddha and that neither Christianity nor Islam had made any progress there. Swearer follows Burma's Theravada to 1885. Both articles speak of a people, the Birmans or Burmese, and name no share of the country's people, so the steps show Buddhism as present; medium because the sources describe Burma as a whole.³⁸⁷⁰³⁷
1800 to 1850	The Buriat Mongols of southern Siberia	Present	Low	Both	Atwood writes that from 1800 on another wave of Gelug missionary activity converted many Buriat Mongols in southern Siberia, that many Buriats held firmly to Buddhism in resisting Tsarist Russia's policies of Russification and Christianization, and that mass anti-Buddhist campaigns began among them in 1929; he names Buriatia, where two monasteries reopened after 1944. Low because the source dates the conversions only from 1800, the first step drawn, and places the Buriats only in southern Siberia and Buriatia, which the row reads as the Buryatia block; Transbaikal province is drawn at 1900 from the census of 1897.⁶⁷
1800 to 1900	Mongolia	Prevalent	High	Both	By 1800, Atwood writes, shamanism survived in institutionalized form only on the eastern and northern fringes of the Mongolian plateau, and the Second Conversion had made Mongolia "a pervasively Buddhist country"; this row reads that as the rule's first clause, that most people there followed Buddhism. He writes that from 1580 to 1920 Tibetan-style Buddhism dominated Mongolia and touched every aspect of life, so the row runs to 1900.⁶⁷
1800 to 1900	Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia	Present	Medium	Both	Swearer follows Theravada in Thailand to the reforms of Mongkut (1851 to 1868) and Chulalongkorn (1868 to 1910), and in Laos and Cambodia, under Tai influence, to the Thammayut order's arrival in Cambodia in 1864; Crosby calls Theravada the dominant form of Buddhism in all three today. For 1800, the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica, in an account it takes from Michael Symes's embassy and gives no year for, writes that the image of the Buddha was the chief object of worship in all the countries between Bengal and China; for 1850, the eighth edition's article on Siam, in a volume dated 1860, writes that the religion of Siam was Buddhism, that its priests were said to number more than a hundred thousand, and that every male must at some time in his life become a candidate for the priestly office. Neither names a share of the people (the 1860 article counts the Siamese at about 1,800,000 of five to six million, beside Chinese, Laos, Malays, and Cambodians), so the steps show Buddhism as present; medium because the sources describe the three countries only as wholes.³⁷³⁶³⁸⁷¹
1800 to 1900	Vietnam	Present	Medium	Both	For 1800, the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia, which gives no year for the passage and writes in the present tense, writes that in Tonkin, as in Cochinchina, Chinese ideas prevailed to a considerable degree, and that the religion of the country appeared to be the Buddha's. Swearer writes that Buddhism continued to be important among the Vietnamese masses after the elite came to prefer Confucianism, and that the classical synthesis of which Buddhism was part has sustained the culture of Vietnam, with those of Burma, Thailand, Cambodia, and Laos, to the present. Neither names a share of the people, so the steps show Buddhism as present. The row reads Swearer's Vietnam as today's country, as the Christian layer reads Neill and Mullins's Vietnam at these steps; medium because the sources describe the country broadly.³⁷³⁸
1850	Balti (Western Tibet)	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Tibet in a volume dated 1860, which gives no year for the passage, writes of the universal prevalence of Buddhism in a Tibet that takes in the province of Balti in the extreme west, and that in Balti Islam prevails, Balti's Muslims and the roughly 8,000 Roman Catholics believed to live throughout Tibet being almost the only exceptions. That statement about the part keeps the larger area's majority off it, as a part's own statement does for every faith, so the block shows Buddhism as present. The block is Pakistan's Northern Areas, whose name GeoNames' entry for Gilgit-Baltistan carries, as the Christian and Islam layers read the same passage. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁷²⁷³
1850	Qinghai (Amdo and the Koko-Nor)	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Tibet in a volume dated 1860, writes of the universal prevalence of Buddhism in Tibet, which it bounds on the north by the Koko-Nor territory, so its statement dates Buddhism at this step in the part of this block south of that territory; since it covers only part of the block, the block shows Buddhism as present, not as a majority. Kapstein writes, in his account of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, that Kumbum, near Xining in today's Qinghai, became an important center of learning. Medium because the dated statement covers only part of the block.⁵⁶⁷²
1850	The interior of Ceylon	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Ceylon in a volume dated 1854, which gives no year for the passage, writes that the religion of the Buddha was the dominant creed in Ceylon, professed by the entire population of the interior and the greater portion of the Sinhalese of the low country. The row reads "the interior" as the island's inland districts outside the Northern Province, by this site's reading. Medium because the article describes the interior as a whole and gives no count.⁷⁴
1850	The low country of Ceylon	Present	Medium	Both	The same article of 1854 writes that the greater portion of the Sinhalese of the low country professed Buddhism, a statement about one people of the coastal districts, not about most of their people, and that Sinhalese was the current language throughout all the maritime provinces except in the north and north-west, where Tamil was used. The row reads the Sinhalese of the low country as living in the maritime districts of the west, south, and east, by the article's account of the language, so those districts show Buddhism as present; the north and north-west, where the article places Tamil speakers and, in the northern districts, a Hindu majority, are not drawn. Medium because the article describes the districts broadly and gives no count of their people.⁷⁴
1850	Tibet (Bod, with Ladak)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Tibet in a volume dated 1860, which gives no year for the passage, writes that the religion of Tibet is Buddhism, which has there its great seat and center, that Islam prevails in the province of Balti in the extreme west, that about 8,000 Roman Catholics are believed to live throughout Tibet, and that these are almost the only exceptions to the universal prevalence of Buddhism. It bounds Tibet on the north by Chinese Turkestan, the Gobi, and the Koko-Nor territory, on the south by the Himalaya, and on the west by Kashmir, and names Ladak in Western Tibet; by this site's reading the blocks are Xizang and Ladakh. Balti, where the article writes that Islam prevails, and Qinghai, which takes in the Koko-Nor territory, are drawn in rows of their own. Medium because the article describes the country as a whole and gives no count.⁷²⁵⁶
1850 to 1900	Northern and southern China	Present	Medium	Both	Teiser writes that in late imperial times, under the Ming (1368 to 1644) and the Qing (1644 to 1911), traces of Buddhism could be found almost everywhere, not always recognized as such, perhaps because it was so pervasive. No source found states a majority at these steps. Medium because the source describes China broadly; the building blocks are those of the row for 500 CE to 1700.³⁹
1900	Astrakhan province	Present	Medium	Both	In 1897, Russia's first general census counted 136,980 Buddhists and Lamaists among Astrakhan province's 1,003,542 people (13.6 percent, by this site's arithmetic). The census lists name the town of Astrakhan, in today's Astrakhan block, and two steppes, the Kalmyk steppe (128,573 people) and the Inner Kirghiz Horde (214,796), whose shares the province figure hides; the Kalmykia block is drawn by this site's reading of the 1897 borders, and the Inner Horde is not drawn. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, and a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it.⁷⁵⁷⁶⁷⁷
1900	Burma	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, 9,184,121 people in Burma, 88.6 percent of the population, were returned as Buddhists. Medium because the figure is for Burma as a whole, and the building block is today's whole country.⁶⁹
1900	Japan	Present	Medium	Both	Ruppert's account of Buddhism in the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), a span that contains this step, writes that by 1871 Buddhist clerics, sometimes together with the government and sometimes in opposition to it, began to work to reconceive and newly represent the relevance of Buddhist belief and practice to Japanese society. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, read for majorities at this step in the Ottoman lands and Cyprus, has not yet been read for Japan, so the step shows Buddhism as present. Medium because one source describes the country broadly.⁶²
1900	Ladakh	Present	Low	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Tibet (1860) writes of the universal prevalence of Buddhism in a Tibet whose principal town in the west is Leh, the capital of Ladak, and Gomez writes that a visitor to the subcontinent today would meet small pockets of Buddhists in the Himalayan regions, especially in Ladakh and Nepal, and that Buddhism of Tibetan origin survives in the subcontinent mostly in Ladakh, Sikkim, and Bhutan; neither source records an end of Buddhism in Ladakh between. The row reads two mentions of Buddhists in Ladakh a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁷²²¹
1900	Qinghai (Amdo and the Koko-Nor)	Present	Low	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Tibet (1860) writes of the universal prevalence of Buddhism in a Tibet that takes in the part of this block south of the Koko-Nor territory, and Kapstein, in his account of Tibetan Buddhism in the People's Republic of China, writes of the educated Tibetan clergy of the 1950s, a record for a larger area that contains this block; neither source records an end of Buddhism there between. The row reads two mentions of Buddhists in the block, about 90 years apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁵⁶⁷²
1900	Sri Lanka	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In the census of 1901, Sri Lanka's Department of Census and Statistics reports, 2,141,400 of the island's 3,566,000 people were Buddhist. Medium because the figure is for the island as a whole, and the building block is today's whole country.⁷⁸
1900	Tibet	Present	Medium	Both	Kapstein writes that the thirteenth Dalai Lama (1876 to 1933) was sympathetic to the goals of the nineteenth-century eclectic movement in Tibetan Buddhism, while some factions in the Gelug leadership were not, among them Phabongkhapa (1878 to 1941). The row reads the thirteenth Dalai Lama's lifetime, which contains this step, as dating the Buddhist community of Tibet, the realm whose affairs of state, Kapstein writes, the Dalai Lama or his regent directed; it is drawn as the Xizang block. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, read for majorities at this step in the Ottoman lands and Cyprus, has not yet been read for Tibet. Medium because the source describes Tibet broadly.⁵⁶
1900	Transbaikal province	Present	Medium	Both	In 1897, Russia's first general census counted 174,227 Buddhists and Lamaists among Transbaikal province's 672,037 people (25.9 percent, by this site's arithmetic), and Atwood writes that missions from 1800 on converted many Buriat Mongols in southern Siberia. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, whose districts, the census's own list shows, included Verkhneudinsk (today's Ulan-Ude, in the Buryatia block) and Chita (by this site's reading, today's Chita block); a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it.⁷⁹⁸⁰⁶⁷⁸¹

Christianity

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
250 CE	Artaz and Aghbak, in Vaspurakan	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Armenian Apostolic Church's Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin holds that the apostle Thaddeus gathered followers at Artaz, in Vaspurakan, that Bartholomew preached in Goghtn and was martyred at Aghbak in 66 CE, and that through their preaching and the bishops' sees they set up at Artaz and Goghtn the Armenian Church was founded; churches and monasteries were built over their tombs at Artaz, now in Iran, and Aghbak, now in Turkey, and for centuries remained revered pilgrimage sites. The tradition carries the community at Artaz on through the sees from which it holds the Armenian Church was founded and the monastery over Thaddeus's tomb, so the shape is drawn at 250 CE. Nersoyan writes that reliable records show bishops in western Armenia in the third century, chiefly at Ashtishat in Taron, which is drawn for both accounts at this step; the historians' sources found place no community at Artaz or Aghbak at this step. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; Goghtn is not placed.⁸²⁸³⁸⁴⁸⁵
250 CE	Atchara and the Black Sea coast	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Georgian Orthodox Church's tradition, as the Catholicos-Patriarch's charitable foundation gives it, holds that after Pentecost the apostles Andrew and Simon the Canaanite preached first in Atchara, in southwestern Georgia, and then northward along the Black Sea coast, that Simon is buried at Anakopia, in Abkhazeti, and that a church hierarchy already existed at Bichvinta when its bishop attended the First Ecumenical Council; the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series places the apostles' preaching in the first century. The tradition carries the coast's church from the apostles to the council of 325, so the shape is drawn at 250 CE. Toumanoff writes that Christian influences reached Georgia before its official conversion, that a bishop of Pityus (Pitsunda), in West Georgia, was at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and that Nino converted Mirian, king of Iberia, in 334; the historians' sources found date no community on the coast at this step. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition gives the apostles' preaching no year, and the shape follows the coast the foundation names.⁸⁶⁸⁷⁸⁸
250 CE	Britain	Present	Low	Both	The church in Gaul, Pelikan writes, is thought by many scholars to have been the source of the earliest Christian missions to the British Isles, which date from the second or third century, when some of the Celtic inhabitants of Britain were converted; the row reads that span as reaching 250 CE. The monks of Glastonbury Abbey held in the 14th century, the University of Reading's Glastonbury Abbey Archaeology project writes, that their Old Church was founded in 63 CE by Joseph of Arimathea; that tradition falls inside this shape. Low because the source dates the missions only to one of two centuries and names Britain broadly; Northern Ireland is left out with the rest of Ireland, which the source does not name.⁸⁹⁹⁰
250 CE	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Cyprus writes that converts reached the island after the death of Stephen, that Barnabas revisited it with Paul on his first journey in 46 CE, and that a council of Cyprus, summoned by Theophilus of Alexandria, met in 401; it records no end of the island's Christian community between. The row reads two mentions of Christians on Cyprus a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁹¹
250 CE	Ethiopia	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church's history of its founding holds that Christianity was known in Ethiopia long before it became the Aksumite kingdom's official religion in the fourth century: Ethiopian tradition, it writes, asserts that the eunuch baptized by Philip in Acts 8 returned home and evangelized the people, and the church's account carries that Christianity on to the fourth century, so the shape is drawn at 250 CE. Butts writes that Ezana (about 330 to 360), whose coins and inscriptions give contemporary evidence, was the first African king to adopt Christianity; the historians' sources found date no community there at this step, and the shared shape begins at 500 CE. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the sources name only Ethiopia, drawn here as Tigray, the region of Aksum.⁹²⁹³⁹⁴
250 CE	Italy, Gaul, and Spain	Present	Medium	Both	Within a century of the founder's death, Neill writes, churches came into existence in Italy, and almost certainly in France and Spain; Pelikan writes of a Christian community at Lyons, in Gaul, persecuted in 177 and 178. The PBS chronology dates the first major persecution of Christians, under the emperor Decius, to 249 to 251, and Pelikan writes that the opposition between empire and church during the second and third centuries sometimes took the form of persecution and martyrdom; the row reads these empire-wide statements for each province where the sources place churches before them, which is what carries Spain at this step. At 500 CE no statement, for the empire or for Spain, is dated within 30 years, so Spain is drawn there only at low confidence, from two mentions a century or more apart. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly and Neill hedges on France and Spain; Britain has a row of its own.⁹⁵⁸⁹⁹⁶⁹⁷
250 CE	Kerala	Present	Low	Both	The Thomas Christians of Kerala hold that the apostle Thomas founded their church, and the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church, one of their churches, holds that he arrived on the Malabar Coast in 52 CE; the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series also places Christian communities in India in the first century. Neill and Mullins write that a number of scholars hold that churches existed in India no later than the second century, while all but the most skeptical accept a date in the fourth century as almost certain. Low because historians' sources disagree at this step.⁹⁸⁹⁹⁸⁷
250 CE	Mesopotamia, Beth Zabde, Susiana, and Kharg	Present	Low	Both	Russell writes in the Encyclopaedia Iranica that by the beginning of the Sasanian period twenty Christian bishops are recorded, from Beth Zabde in the north through Karka de Beth Slokh and south to Susiana and Mesene, and that by 250 the religion had so many adherents in Iran that no less than sixty Christian tombs are found on Kharg island, in the Persian Gulf. The New Catholic Encyclopedia gives later Greek, Syrian, and Persian accounts that the apostles Peter and Thomas preached to the Parthians and that Thaddeus, Bartholomew, and Addai evangelized Mesopotamia and Persia, and writes that it is quite possible that the first real Christian communities there were founded in 260, when Christians carried off from Syria after Valerian's defeat were settled in Mesopotamia. Low because historians differ on this step and the sources name regions broadly: the row takes Iraq, Susiana as the Khuzestan block, Kharg as the Bushehr block, and Beth Zabde, which the New Catholic Encyclopedia names as Jeziret ibn-Omar (Beit-Zabdai), as the Sirnak block, where GeoNames places Cizre.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹¹⁰²¹⁰³¹⁰⁴
250 CE	Rome	Present	High	Both	Pelikan writes that Rome was the most powerful Christian center in Europe from the beginning, that one tradition dates the founding of its church by the apostle Peter to around 42 CE, and that critics of that tradition point to Paul's letter to the Romans, written fifteen years later, which does not mention Peter. Tacitus records that Nero put many Christians to death there after the fire of 64.⁸⁹¹⁰⁵⁹⁶¹⁰⁶
250 CE	Syria and Egypt	Present	Medium	Both	The Orthodox Church in America's teaching series holds that Christian communities were founded in the main cities of Syria and Egypt in the first century, and the PBS chronology names Ignatius, bishop of Antioch, martyred between 107 and 117, the teachers Clement of Alexandria (150 to 215) and Origen (185 to 254), and the first major persecution of Christians, under the emperor Decius, in 249 to 251. Pelikan writes that the opposition between empire and church during the second and third centuries sometimes took the form of persecution and martyrdom; the row reads these empire-wide statements, a span and a dated persecution, for each province where the sources place churches before them, as it does for Italy, Gaul, and Spain. Nersoyan writes that Dionysius of Alexandria wrote to a bishop in Armenia in 251, and Pacini traces the region's churches to Christianity's first growth in Jerusalem, Antioch, and Damascus. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly.⁸⁷⁹⁶¹⁰⁷⁸³⁹⁷
250 CE	Taron, in western Armenia	Present	Medium	Both	The Armenian Apostolic Church honors the apostles Thaddeus and Bartholomew as the first illuminators of Armenia, and the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series places Christian communities in Armenia in the first century. Nersoyan writes that reliable records show bishops in western Armenia in the third century, chiefly at Ashtishat in the province of Taron, and that Dionysius of Alexandria wrote to Merozanes, a bishop in Armenia, in 251. Medium because the source names one center, not the extent of the church.⁸³¹⁰⁸⁸⁷¹⁰⁹
250 CE to 500 CE	Roman North Africa	Present	Medium	Both	Atiya writes that Christianity in Roman North Africa was concentrated in Carthage and its neighboring provinces, from Tripolitania to northern Morocco, with a separate church in Cyrenaica tied to Alexandria; Carthage's church counted about 150 bishoprics in 250. After the Arab conquest, which took Carthage in 698, he writes, the churches there vanished with surprising speed. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.¹¹⁰
250 CE to 1000 CE	Asia Minor	Present	Medium	Both	Paul founded many churches in Asia Minor, the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series holds, and the PBS chronology dates his arrival at Ephesus to 52 CE, a Roman governor's letter about Christians in Pontus and Bithynia to 112 or 113, and the first major persecution of Christians, under the emperor Decius, to 249 to 251. Pelikan writes that the fourth century saw the creation of a Christian Roman Empire, whose capital from 330 was Constantinople, the city that became Muslim in 1453. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly.⁸⁷⁹⁶⁹⁷
250 CE to 1000 CE	Edessa (Urfa)	Present	Medium	Both	The New Catholic Encyclopedia's entry on Edessa, modern Urfa, writes that it was evangelized by Christians from Palestine, and that Eusebius cites a letter that the Chronicle of Addai attributes to King Abgar V, written to Jesus, who sent the apostle Addai to convert the country. For historians' account it names the first bishop, Palut, consecrated about 200, a church flooded in 202, and the Liber legum regionum of about 250, and writes that Edessan Christianity in the third century showed marks of stringent asceticism and was affected by the persecutions of Decius and Diocletian, so the Addai account and historians' agree at 250 CE. It names the bishops Rabbula (412 to 435) and Ibas (435 to 457), and writes that after the Arab conquest Edessa was the see of both a bishop of the Church of the East and a Syriac Orthodox metropolitan (the entry's "Nestorian" and "Jacobite", names Carlson calls derogatory labels) until 1097; the row reads the see, from its first bishop to 1097, as carrying the steps from 500 CE to 1000 CE. Medium because the entry names the city, drawn as the Sanliurfa block.¹¹¹¹¹²¹¹³
250 CE to 1250	Macedonia, Achaia, Crete, and the Aegean islands	Present	High	Both	Harakas lists Greek cities where the Christian scriptures place churches in the first century, among them Philippi, Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth, and writes that the peoples of Macedonia, Achaia, Crete, and the Aegean islands trace the continuity of their church life to early Christianity. High because the source follows one church through these centuries; from 1500 the Greek block is drawn in later rows.¹¹⁴⁹⁶⁸⁷
500 CE	Aksum	Present	High	Both	Ezana, king of Aksum, is the recorded first Christian ruler there; scholars still discuss how much earlier Christianity arrived.¹¹⁵
500 CE	Cyprus	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Cyprus writes that the island's church was divided into thirteen bishoprics and was made autonomous in the 5th century, a century that contains this step, and its article on the church of Cyprus that the church's independence was recognized by the council of Ephesus in 431 and by an edict of the emperor Zeno, who made the bishop of Salamis metropolitan, with the title archbishop of all Cyprus. Medium because the sources date the church by century and describe the island as a whole.⁹¹¹¹⁶
500 CE	Gaul, Italy, and Britain	Present	Medium	Both	Pelikan writes that Clovis, king of the Franks, became a Catholic Christian in 496 and that Benedict of Nursia (about 480 to about 547), through his Rule, gave European monasticism a settled form. He writes of missions to the British Isles in the second or third century, which many scholars trace to Gaul and which gave the Celtic church its name, and of that church's older customs, which Bede (about 673 to 735) described giving way to those of the continent. Medium because the source describes the area broadly; Britain is drawn without Northern Ireland, which goes with the rest of Ireland, where the source names no place. Spain has a row of its own at this step.⁸⁹
500 CE	Marv (Merv)	Present	Low	Both	Russell writes in the Encyclopaedia Iranica that in the late 6th century Marv and Herat, whose Christian communities were already centuries old, are prominently mentioned, and that in 651 the Bishop of Marv provided a tomb for the murdered Sasanian ruler Yazdegerd III; the New Catholic Encyclopedia names Merv among the caravan cities of Central Asia where the Church of the East had churches, bishops, and metropolitans. The row reads a community already centuries old in the late 6th century as present at 500 CE. Low because the source gives the community's age only in centuries.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹¹¹⁷
500 CE	Nisibis	Present	Medium	Both	The New Catholic Encyclopedia writes that after the death of Ibas of Edessa in 457, Narses went to Nisibis and founded a school there that continued to keep alive the teachings of Theodore of Mopsuestia and Nestorius and came to hold some 800 students, and it names Bar Sauma, metropolitan of Nisibis, in its account of the years to 484, 16 years before this step. GeoNames places Nusaybin, which it also names Nisibis, in the Mardin block, the block drawn. Medium because the source names one town, drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁰¹¹¹⁸
500 CE	Spain	Present	Low	Both	Pelikan writes that the Spanish bishop Hosius of Cordova was in many ways the most authoritative of the bishops at the Council of Nicaea in 325, and Fierro that after the conquest of 711, by Muslim armies formed mostly of Berbers, Muslim Arabs replaced the Visigoths as rulers over "the local Hispano-Roman population, who were (even if only nominally) Christians"; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Spain a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.⁸⁹¹¹⁹
500 CE	West Georgia, beyond Abkhazia and Lazica	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that by the 5th century the whole of West Georgia had become Christian, except the land of Abkhazia in the north and that of Lazica in the south, which were evangelized in the 6th century; the row reads the 5th century as reaching 500 CE. Abkhazia is left out, and so is Ajaria, since no source in hand places Lazica on today's blocks. Medium because the source describes West Georgia broadly.⁸⁸
500 CE to 1250	Persia and Mesopotamia	Present	Medium	Both	A synod of the Church of the East, from which today's Assyrian Church of the East and Chaldean Catholic Church descend, met at Seleucia in 410 with 40 bishops and another met there in 486, and the Catholicos Babai held a synod in 497, the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes; under Muslim rule its catholicos moved to Baghdad, its missions flourished under Timotheus I (780 to 823), and Baghdad was still the church's center in 1281. The Mongols took Persia in 1258, and under Timur (1379 to 1405) the church suffered severe persecution. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.¹⁰¹
500 CE to 1500	Van	Present	Medium	Both	The Armenian Apostolic Church dates the start of the nation's conversion to 301. Nersoyan writes that the catholicate of the Armenian church sat at Duin from 484 to 901, and that the form of its liturgy has remained constant since the tenth century; the row reads these statements about the church in Armenia as a whole as carrying 500 CE, 750 CE, and 1000 CE at Van, as the Armenia row reads them. He also writes that in 1113 a rival catholicos was installed on the island of Al'thamar, in the province of Van, and that the last incumbent of that see died in 1895; the row reads the see as carrying 1250 and 1500. Medium because the sources describe Armenia broadly, and name Van only through that see; from 1600 to 1800 Van has a row of its own.⁸³¹²⁰
500 CE to 1600	Iberia (Kartli and Kakheti)	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that Iberia became officially Christian in 337, its first bishop's see at the capital, Mtskheta; that the emperor Zeno recognized the head of the Iberian church as an autocephalous catholicos between 486 and 488, though still dependent on Antioch, and that by the beginning of the sixth century there were some 30 bishops in Iberia; that under the catholicos Cyrion I, in the 600s, the Iberian church broke with the Armenian church; that in the golden age that followed the unification of 1008 the church played a leading role; and that the catholicate of Iberia was abolished in 1811. The row reads the catholicate, from its recognition to 1811, as carrying every step between; Kakheti, which Toumanoff calls eastern Iberia, is drawn with Kartli. 1700 and 1800 have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes Iberia broadly.⁸⁸¹²¹
500 CE to 1900	Armenia (historic Armenia)	Present	Medium	Both	The Armenian Apostolic Church, one of the Oriental Orthodox churches, dates the start of the nation's conversion to 301 and holds that, as a result, Christianity was proclaimed the state religion; Nersoyan dates the king's baptism after 313 and that establishment to 314. He writes that the catholicate sat at Duin from 484 to 901, that the form of the church's liturgy has remained constant since the tenth century, and that the catholicos later sat in Cilicia before returning to Echmiadzin in 1441; the row reads these statements about the church in Armenia as a whole as carrying the steps between. Armenia is read as historic Armenia. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Armenia calls it a district south of the Caucasus and Black Sea that formed part of the ancient Armenian kingdom, gives its widest extent as 37 to 49 degrees east and 37 1/2 to 41 1/2 degrees north, and writes that it was then divided between Persia, Russia, and Turkey; Moll's geography of 1701 bounds the ancient Armenia Major by the Euphrates, the mountains toward Colchis and Iberia and the Kur, the Caspian, and the Niphates and Taurus mountains. By this site's reading the blocks are today's Armenia, Turkey's blocks of the plateau east of the Euphrates and north of the Taurus, and Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan, which Moll names among the towns of Turcomania; the lowlands toward the Kur and the Caspian, where no source in hand names a town or church at these steps, are left out, and Van, the Black Sea slope, and Iran's blocks have rows of their own. For 1700, Gordon's geography of 1699 calls Turcomania the old Armenia Major and writes that the Armenians' religion prevailed in many parts of these provinces, and Moll's bounds Turcomania by Natolia, Georgia, Persia, and Diarbeck and reports Tavernier's view that it was almost entirely inhabited by Armenians, a statement about a people that this map does not read as a majority by faith. For 1900, the 1911 article gives an estimate of 1896 of 633,250 Armenians and 179,875 other Christians in the five vilayets that held most of the Armenians, and 970,656 Armenians in Russia in 1897. Tuncel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Ottoman rule was established at Mus in 1515, and records 500 Armenian families in the town in 1838, 415 in 1846, and 1,200 Armenian houses in 1899. O'Sullivan gives Anatolia's people as more than 92 percent Muslim in the registers of 1520 to 1535; no source says whether those registers took in these blocks, and the row reads O'Sullivan's figure for Anatolia, the part, as deciding for the Turkish blocks, so Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century is not read down to them. A figure for a part, even one from outside a step's window, keeps a larger area's majority off the part but does not by itself place a community at the step, for any faith. Medium because the sources describe Armenia broadly.⁸³¹²⁰¹²²¹²³¹²⁴¹²⁵¹²⁶¹²⁷⁶⁸
500 CE to 1900	Kerala	Present	High	Both	Neill and Mullins write that a church has certainly existed in Kerala for many centuries, though information for the medieval period is scanty; it kept Syriac worship, received bishops from Mesopotamia, and was flourishing when the Portuguese arrived in 1498, and the New Catholic Encyclopedia notes inscriptions of the sixth and seventh centuries on stone crosses at Kottayam. At the Synod of Diamper in 1599, Neill and Mullins write, the archbishop of Goa persuaded the Thomas Christians to accept the authority of Rome, while the Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church calls the synod a coercive attempt to impose Latin customs; half a century later a third of the Thomas Christians reasserted their independence in what is now the Malankara Syrian Orthodox Church.⁹⁸¹⁰¹⁹⁹
500 CE to 1900	Syria, Palestine, and Egypt	Present	Medium	Both	Pacini describes the Christian communities of Egypt, Jordan, Israel, the Palestinian territories, Syria, and Lebanon as an indigenous presence older than Islam, divided since the fifth century between churches that accepted the Council of Chalcedon, such as the Orthodox patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem, and Alexandria, and the Coptic and Syrian Orthodox churches, which did not. After the Arab conquests of the seventh century, Pelikan writes, a large Christian population kept its faith under varying degrees of pressure, while Neill writes that by the time Muslim armies reached Tours the churches of Palestine, Syria, and Egypt had almost disappeared, and the views O'Sullivan sets out place the main fall in Egypt's Christian share anywhere from the seventh century to the fourteenth. For Egypt at 1800 and 1850, the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article of 1810, following Volney's account of about 1785, writes that the Copts profess the Christian religion and serve as the government's writers at Cairo, and its article of 1855 gives Lane's estimate of 1834, 150,000 Christian Egyptians (Copts) among fewer than 2,000,000 people, and writes that the Muslims made up seven-eighths of the present population. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly and differ on how many Christians remained; Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century is not read down to these blocks, since Carlson's Ottoman registers for Syria and O'Sullivan's figures for Egypt show Muslim majorities there.¹⁰⁷⁹⁷⁹⁵¹²⁴¹²⁸¹²⁹¹²³¹³⁰
750 CE	Chang'an	Present	Medium	Both	Alopen, a missionary of the Church of the East, reached Chang'an, the Tang capital, in 635 and received permission to preach, and over the next century monasteries and a metropolitan see were founded in China, the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes. The church survived about two centuries, Neill and Mullins write, and by the tenth century, the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes, Christianity had disappeared from China. Medium because the sources name the city, not how far the church reached in its province.¹⁰¹⁹⁸¹³¹
750 CE	Gaul, Italy, and the British Isles	Present	Medium	Both	In the two centuries after Clovis, Pelikan writes, the Frankish crown became the main protector of the Roman see. Pope Gregory I (590 to 604) sent Augustine to Kent, and Bede (about 673 to 735) described older Celtic church customs in Britain giving way to those of the continent. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.⁸⁹
750 CE to 1000 CE	Aksum	Present	Medium	Both	Haile writes that the Ethiopian church, whose first communities formed at Aksum and the port of Adulis, grew from the fourth to the seventh century and suffered encroachment and harassment by Islam from the eighth, and that a revolt led by Gudit, a vassal queen, devastated its Christian civilization. The World Council of Churches counts the Ethiopian church among the Oriental Orthodox. Medium because the source does not place the church at these steps more exactly.¹³²¹²²
750 CE to 1000 CE	al-Andalus and the northern Christian kingdoms	Present	Medium	Both	Fierro writes that from the conquest of 711 the Christians of al-Andalus, with the Jews, kept their religion and community life as protected peoples (dhimmis), subordinate to the Muslims, while Christians established small independent kingdoms in part of the lands north of the Duero and south of the Pyrenees. In the tenth century, she writes, the Christians of al-Andalus began to translate their religious literature into Arabic, and in its first half Muslims became the majority of the population. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.¹¹⁹
750 CE to 1000 CE	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on the church of Cyprus writes that the church's independence was recognized by the council of Ephesus in 431, by an edict of the emperor Zeno, and by the Trullan Council in 692, and that a Latin hierarchy was set up on the island in 1196, under which the Greek bishops ministered to their flocks; it records no end of the island's Christian community between. The row reads two mentions of Christians on Cyprus a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹¹⁶
750 CE to 1250	West Georgia	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that in the 7th century West Georgia was divided into two ecclesiastical units, the metropoly of Phasis (Poti) and the archdiocese of Sebastopolis (Sukhum), where the liturgy was that of Constantinople, in Greek at first but from the 8th and 9th centuries in Georgian; the row reads the 8th century as reaching 750 CE. He writes that in 1008, when the two Georgias were united, the West Georgian church was united with that of Iberia under the catholicos of Mtskheta, and that by 1390 West Georgia had withdrawn from that catholicos's jurisdiction; the row reads the union of 1008, eight years after 1000 CE, as carrying that step, and the union from 1008 to 1390 as carrying 1250. Medium because the source describes West Georgia broadly.⁸⁸
1000 CE	France, Germany, Italy, and the British Isles	Present	Medium	Both	Between 632 and 1232, Neill writes, the faith spread west, north, and east until the conversion of Europe was complete; Boniface, known as the apostle of Germany, was at work there in the early 720s, and Charlemagne was crowned emperor by the pope in 800, Pelikan writes, and when at the end of the eighth century Charlemagne conquered the Saxons, Neill writes, he spared their lives on condition that they accept baptism. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly.⁸⁹⁹⁵
1000 CE	Iceland	Present	Medium	Both	Iceland seems to have been unique, Neill writes, in accepting the faith, around 1000, by genuinely democratic methods. Medium because the source gives the year only as around 1000 and describes the island as a whole.⁹⁵
1000 CE	Kyiv	Present	High	Both	Kyiv's people were baptized in the Dnieper in 988, under Vladimir.¹³³
1000 CE to 1250	Eastern Europe	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that Khan Boris of Bulgaria accepted baptism from Greek clergy after 860 and that the Serbs under Prince Mutimir (865 to 891) took the Eastern form of the faith, while Moravia, the Croats, Hungary, and Poland came into the Western church; Hungary's King Stephen I set down a constitution for its church in 1001, and Esztergom became the see of its primate in 1279. Neill writes that between 632 and 1232 the faith spread until the conversion of Europe was complete. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly; from 1500 these blocks are drawn in the rows for Europe.¹¹⁴⁹⁵
1000 CE to 1250	Samarkand	Present	Low	Both	Russell writes in the Encyclopaedia Iranica that from the early Muslim period a metropolitan of the Church of the East (his "Nestorian metropolitan") is mentioned at Samarkand, and that Christianity was eradicated there only in the mid-15th century, with the massacre or forced conversion to Islam of the last of the faithful. The row reads that community, from the first mention of its metropolitan to its end, as carrying 1000 CE and 1250; 750 CE is not drawn, since "the early Muslim period" gives no year, and 1500 falls after the end the source gives. Low because the source dates the start only by a period.¹⁰⁰¹⁰¹¹³⁴
1250	Constantinople	Present	High	Both	Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire from 330, fell to the armies of the Turkish sultan Mehmed II in 1453, Pelikan writes, and its ecumenical patriarchate kept a preeminence of honor within Eastern Orthodoxy; at this step the city was held by the Latin empire, since, Harakas writes, the Byzantines set up their capital in Nicaea and were unable to return to Constantinople until 1261. High because the sources date the Christian capital on both sides of this step; from 1500 the city has a row of its own.⁹⁷¹¹⁴¹⁰⁷¹³⁵
1250	Europe	Present	Medium	Both	Between 632 and 1232, Neill writes, the faith spread west, north, and east until the conversion of Europe was complete; conversion seems to have reached its natural end, he writes, with the conversion of Jagiello, king of the Lithuanians, in 1383. Granada, which Spain took only in 1492, Rooy writes, is left out at this step. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly.⁹⁵¹³⁶
1250	Kyiv, Novgorod, and Pskov	Present	Medium	Both	After Kyiv's conversion in the tenth century, Harakas writes, church life flowered there for the next few centuries, with active mission to the north, notably at Novgorod and Pskov. Kyiv fell to the Mongols in 1240, and the church led a long struggle to keep Russian life alive. Medium because the source names cities, not how far the church reached in their regions.¹¹⁴
1250 to 1600	Asia Minor	Present	Low	Both	Pliny, the Roman governor of Pontus-Bithynia, wrote to the emperor Trajan in 112 or 113 for advice on punishing Christians, the PBS chronology records, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Natolia, the former Asia Minor, held great multitudes of Christians, particularly Greeks, and of all sorts, Armenians among them; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Asia Minor a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. Cilicia, Constantinople, Van, and historic Armenia have rows of their own, and Edessa is treated apart.⁹⁶⁶⁸
1250 to 1600	Cyprus	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on the church of Cyprus writes that a Latin hierarchy was set up in 1196, with an archbishop at Nicosia and suffragans at Limassol, Paphos, and Famagusta, and that the Greek bishops ministered to their flocks under it in the period when the Lusignans and Venice held the island (1193 to 1571), after which the native church emerged into comparative freedom; it writes that the patriarchs of Antioch tried to assert authority over the church, the last time as recently as 1600. The New Catholic Encyclopedia writes that in 1340 Elias, archbishop of Nicosia in Cyprus, made a profession of faith upholding the authority of the Holy See, and that a reunion of the Assyrian Church in Cyprus was officially recorded in Rome in 1445. The row reads the period from 1196 to 1571 as a span that carries 1250 and 1500, and that attempt of 1600 as dating the church at that step. Medium because the sources describe the island as a whole.¹¹⁶¹⁰¹
1250 to 1900	Cilicia (Sis)	Present	Medium	Both	The Armenian catholicate was established in Cilicia in 1116, Nersoyan writes, where Armenian princes had founded principalities and later a kingdom (1080 to 1375); when the see returned to Echmiadzin in 1441, the incumbent at Sis refused to move, and the Cilician catholicate kept its separate existence there until its seat moved to Antelias, Lebanon, after World War I. Medium because the source names one center, not the church's full extent; Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century is not read down to this block, which O'Sullivan's figure for Anatolia covers.⁸³¹³⁷
1250 to 1900	Ethiopia	Present	Medium	Both	Haile writes that the Zagwe kings (1137 to 1270) are credited with the rock-hewn churches of Lasta, that in 1270 the clergy, led by Takla Haymanot, the founder of the Monastery of Dabra Libanos in Shewa, helped found the Solomonic dynasty, under which the monks of Dabra Libanos spread Christianity south and west, and that the parties to a dispute the church settled in 1878 were based in Tigray, Gonder, Gojam, and Shewa; GeoNames places the monastery in the Amhara block. For 1700, Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Abyssinians took up Christianity and keep a patriarch confirmed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and names Tigrea, Bagamidri, Dambea, Goyama, Narea, Xoa, and Amara among the provinces left to their emperor. For 1800, the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article of 1810, following Bruce's travels of about 1770, places the monastery of Debra Libanos and the law at Gondar that none should eat meat not killed by Christians; for 1850, its article of 1853 writes that the religion of the Abyssinians is Christianity, under a primate named by the patriarch at Cairo, and that a Catholic mission had been set up at Adowa. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly.¹³²¹²²¹²⁷¹³⁸¹³⁹¹⁴⁰
1500	Albania	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Koç gives the Balkan households of the registers of 1520 to 1535 as 81 percent Christian; Harakas dates the Ottoman capture of Kruje to 1478 and of Dyrrachium to 1501. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, so at this step, before it, the empire's majority is read down to Albania. Medium because the statements are for the empire and the Balkans as a whole.¹²³¹⁴¹¹⁴²¹¹⁴
1500	Bosnia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years. Mehmed II conquered Bosnia, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry writes, seven years after he took Istanbul in 1453. Lampe writes that a large part of Bosnia's people converted to Islam gradually after the conquest, and that it took more than a hundred years for Muslims to become an absolute majority, so at this step his account of the part agrees with the empire's Christian majority. He also writes that the prosperous cities of Sarajevo and Mostar were mainly Muslim, without a date that falls within 10 years of the step. Medium because the statement is for the whole empire.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁴³¹⁴⁴
1500	Crete and the Aegean islands	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the peoples of Macedonia, Achaia, Crete, and the Aegean islands trace the continuity of their church life to early Christianity, a statement also read for the Greek block from 250 CE to 1250 and for the kingdom of Greece at 1850. Quataert's statement about Ottoman subjects is not read down to the islands at this step: Hudson writes that Venice and Genoa controlled much of the Aegean before 1453, and the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece dates Ottoman rule over Rhodes and the other Aegean islands to Süleyman's time and over Crete to 1669. Present because no source in hand states a majority for the islands at this step; medium because the source describes them broadly.¹¹⁴¹⁴⁵¹⁴⁶
1500	Europe	Present	Medium	Both	In the last years of the war for Granada, whose Nasrid kingdom Fierro dates to its fall in 1492, Rooy writes, two papal bulls gave the Spanish kings wide powers over the church there; Pelikan writes of the crisis of the Western church in the fifteenth century, when rival popes sat at Rome and Avignon, and of the Reformation of Martin Luther (1483 to 1546). Harakas writes that the tie between Poland and Lithuania continued into the sixteenth century, with a significant Orthodox population under the metropolitan of Kyiv; that by the fourteenth century metropolitanates had been set up in various parts of the Romanian region, and the Romanians have kept much of their Latin heritage within the Greek-Byzantine tradition; and that the Ottomans put down the last resistance in Moldavia and Wallachia by 1490. The Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save, outside Servia as Moll's geography of 1701 bounds it, are drawn with Hungary and Slavonia: Moll calls the province of Temesvar, between the Tisza, the Maros, and the Danube, the south-east corner of Hungary, and writes that the Turks took its capital in 1552; he describes Sirmium, in his account of Slavonia, as the capital of a county. Medium because the sources describe the area broadly; the Ottoman Balkans, with the Dobrudja, which the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica places south and east of the Danube, Albania, Bosnia, Constantinople, and the Greek islands are drawn at this step in rows of their own. Present because no source in hand states a majority for these blocks within 10 years of 1500.⁹⁷⁸⁹¹³⁶¹¹⁴¹¹⁹¹⁴⁷¹²⁷
1500	Kyiv	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the union of Lithuania with Poland in 1385 continued into the sixteenth century, and that a significant Orthodox population to the east remained under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan of Kyiv; the row reads that span, which contains this step, as carrying the community at Kyiv. Medium because the source names the see, not how far its people reached.¹¹⁴
1500	Lithuania	Present	High	Both	A political union with Poland in 1385 led to the baptism of the Lithuanians into the Catholic Church by Polish clergy, Harakas writes, and the Polish and Lithuanian relationship continued into the sixteenth century; Neill dates the conversion of their king, Jagiello, to 1383. High because the source follows the tie past this step; from 1600 Lithuania is drawn with the Latin West.¹¹⁴⁹⁵
1500	Moscow, Novgorod, and Pskov	Present	Low	Both	By the death of Sergii of Radonezh in 1392, Harakas writes, Moscow was the center of Russian Orthodoxy; after the fall of Constantinople the Russians began to think of Moscow as the "Third Rome", and its metropolitan was made a patriarch in 1589. None of these records falls within 30 years of this step, and the source records no end of the community between them. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Russia a century or more apart, Moscow's for the Russian church as a whole, which takes in Novgorod and Pskov, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Kyiv has a row of its own at this step, and 1600 and 1700 a row of their own.¹¹⁴
1500	Plovdiv (Filibe)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Hudson that the Ottomans controlled virtually all of the Balkans before 1453; Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Balkan households of the registers of 1520 to 1535 as 81 percent Christian, a figure for the part that agrees. Kiel, in the same encyclopedia's entry on Filibe (Plovdiv), writes that in the last quarter of the fifteenth century the town had 796 Muslim, 78 Christian (Greek), and 33 Roma households; the row reads that span of years from its nearer end, the step itself. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the regional majority is kept; low because the only local figure near the step points the other way. GeoNames places Plovdiv in the Plovdiv block.¹²³¹⁴⁶¹⁴¹¹⁴⁸¹⁴⁹
1500	The Ionian Islands (Cephalonia)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Cephalonia was held by the Turks from 1479 until 1499, when the Venetians drove them out and re-peopled the island with Christians. Medium because the source names one island of the block and gives no count.⁶⁸
1500	The Ottoman Balkans	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century, when districts with large Christian populations broke away, most Ottoman subjects were Christians; Hudson writes that the Ottomans controlled virtually all of the Balkans before 1453, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, though Aruçi, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that the Archbishopric of Ohrid continued after the Ottomans placed the other Balkan churches under the patriarchate, until the Ottoman government abolished it in 1767. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, as bounded on the north and west by the Danube. Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Balkan households of the registers of 1520 to 1535 as 81 percent Christian, citing Todorov, a figure for the part that agrees. The majority is read down to each block because no source in hand gives a figure for a whole block that shows otherwise (the TDV entry on Greece gives the Morea as 9 percent Muslim in 1521, a figure for the part that agrees); where a town's own figure within 10 years of the step points the other way, as Larissa's register of 1506 and Plovdiv's households in the last quarter of the fifteenth century do, the block is drawn apart at low confidence. An account or figure for a whole part decides for it, even from outside the step's window, as for Albania, Anatolia, Constantinople, Bosnia, and Thrace, each with its own row. Epirus stays in this row: the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania, whose Albania takes in Iannina, writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, after this step, so its account of the part does not lower the step, as for Albania. The TDV entry on Greece dates Ottoman rule over Rhodes and the other Aegean islands to Süleyman's time, so the islands are drawn apart. Serbia is drawn south of the Danube and the Save, the northern bounds Moll's geography of 1701 gives Servia; the blocks north of those rivers are drawn with Europe at this step, as lands of Hungary and Slavonia. Medium because the statement is for the whole empire.¹²³¹⁴⁶¹¹⁴¹⁴¹¹⁵⁰¹⁴⁷¹⁴⁵¹⁴²¹⁵¹¹²⁴¹³⁰¹⁵²¹⁵³¹⁴⁸¹²⁷
1500	Thessaly (Larissa)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Hudson that the Ottomans controlled virtually all of the Balkans before 1453; Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Balkan households of the registers of 1520 to 1535 as 81 percent Christian, a figure for the part that agrees. Kiel, in the same encyclopedia's entry on Yenişehir (Larissa), writes that by the register of 1506, six years after the step, 700 Muslim, 30 Christian, and 20 Jewish households from Spain lived in the city's twelve quarters, a population of close to 4,000 that was 90 percent Muslim. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the regional majority is kept; low because the only local figure within 10 years of the step points the other way. GeoNames places Larissa in the Thessaly block.¹²³¹⁴⁶¹⁴¹¹⁵³¹⁵⁴
1500 to 1600	Kongo	Present	Medium	Both	After the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, UNESCO's World Heritage listing writes, the Kingdom of Kongo adopted Christianity while keeping elements of Kongo customs, and the Portuguese added stone buildings, among them several churches, to its capital, Mbanza Kongo, where the cathedral stood by 1608. Medium because the source names only the capital of what it calls a vast kingdom.¹⁵⁵¹⁵⁶
1500 to 1600	Santo Domingo	Present	Medium	Both	Rooy dates the beginning of Latin American church history to the discovery of Santo Domingo in 1492, writes that the second expedition, in 1493, carried a church delegation, and names a colonial university of Santo Domingo among those that trained clergy; Simpson notes that the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have been called the missionary centuries in the New World. Medium because the sources do not say how far across the island the church reached.¹³⁶¹⁵⁷¹⁵⁸
1500 to 1600	Thrace (the vilayet of Adrianople)	Present	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Balkan households of the registers of 1520 to 1535 as 81 percent Christian; Harakas writes that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years. For these blocks a part's own account, though from outside the step's window, keeps that majority off, as it does for every faith: the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on the vilayet of Adrianople, which names Adrianople, Kirk-Kilisseh, Chorlu, and Gumuljina among its towns, writes of a preponderance of Muslims among its peasantry, and does not date when it began. Gökbilgin, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives Edirne 144 Muslim and 19 Christian quarters in 1528. Present because a part's own account keeps the larger area's majority off it; medium because the sources describe the area broadly. GeoNames places the towns named in these blocks.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁴¹¹⁵⁹¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰¹⁶¹¹⁶²¹⁶³
1500 to 1800	West Georgia (the catholicate of Abasgia)	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that by 1390 West Georgia had withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the catholicos of Iberia and formed a rival catholicate of Abasgia, with its seat at Pitsunda (ancient Pityus), which was in abeyance from 1795; the row reads the catholicate, from 1390 to 1795, as carrying the steps between. For 1800 the row reads his silver age of Georgia (about 1500 to 1800), in which Abasgia-Imeretia was one of the Georgian kingdoms, and the Georgian episcopal sees, which numbered some 30 on the eve of the annexation of 1811. Medium because the source describes West Georgia broadly.⁸⁸
1500 to 1900	Constantinople	Present	High	Both	After the city fell to Mehmed II in 1453, Pelikan writes, the ecumenical patriarchate of Constantinople continued to enjoy a preeminence of honor within Eastern Orthodoxy, as it does to this day; Harakas writes that under Ottoman rule all Orthodox Christians in the empire were governed through the patriarchate, a system that lasted to the middle of the nineteenth century, and Pacini counts it among the Orthodox churches of the Middle East today. The city's own counts decide for it, since a figure for the part decides for the part. Inalcik's table for the count of 1477 gives 8,951 Muslim households of 14,803, 60 percent, in Istanbul apart from Galata, and his summary table gives 9,517 Muslim households of 16,326 for the same count; Barkan's estimate for 1535 gives 46,635 Muslim households of 80,000, and Karpat writes that by the numbers Muslims were in the majority until the nineteenth century, so Quataert's empire-wide Christian majority (to 1800) is not read down to the city. Inalcik's summary table counts more Christian than Muslim men in 1833 (102,649 and 73,496); its rows for 1690, 1826, and 1856 give two numbers each without showing, in the saved copy, which columns they fill, so they are not read. Karpat writes that between 1844 and 1880 more than half the city's people were non-Muslims, a span that counts all non-Muslims together and so shows no Christian majority at 1850; his table of peoples for 1897 gives 236,000 Greeks and 162,000 Armenians of 1,059,000; a count of peoples places communities but is not read as a majority by faith, for any faith. High because the sources place the patriarchate in the city throughout.⁹⁷¹¹⁴¹⁰⁷¹⁵¹¹⁶⁴¹²³¹³⁵
1600	Belarus	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the Council of Brest (1596) divided the Orthodox of the Polish and Lithuanian state, under the metropolitan of Kyiv, between those who accepted union with Rome and those who did not, and that after the partitions of Poland in the second half of the eighteenth century these Orthodox came under the Russian church. He places this Orthodox population only "to the east", in his account of Lithuania's union with Poland, without naming a land; this site reads it as including today's Belarus. Present because no source in hand states a majority for Belarus within 10 years of 1600; medium because the source describes the area broadly. At 1700 Belarus is drawn with Lithuania, and from 1800 with Russia and Ukraine.¹¹⁴
1600	Goa	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Portuguese occupied Goa in 1510 and made it the base of their sea empire, and by the end of the sixteenth century, Neill and Mullins write, the great majority of the people in Portugal's possessions had entered the Catholic Church, as a result of special privileges for Christians and hindrances for Hindus. Medium because the source speaks of Portugal's possessions in general, not Goa alone, and the shape is today's state of Goa.⁹⁸
1600	Japan	Present	Medium	Both	Francis Xavier and other Jesuits landed in Japan in 1549; rulers converted and their dependents followed, and by the end of the sixteenth century, Neill and Mullins write, Japan was reckoned to have 300,000 Christians. After a period of persecution the church was eliminated by 1638, though missionaries returning in 1859 found that a remnant had kept the faith. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.⁹⁸
1600	Mosul, Diarbekr, and Jeziret ibn-Omar	Present	Low	Both	The New Catholic Encyclopedia writes that in 1551 a group of Assyrian Christians eager for union with Rome met at Mosul, that their first Chaldean patriarch took up residence at Diarbekr and died early in 1555, that the Chaldeans chose as his successor the metropolitan of Jeziret ibn-Omar, and that reconciliations with various Assyrian groups went on in the 17th and 18th centuries. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in Diarbeck, his name for Mesopotamia, the Armenian tongue was chiefly used in divine service, and places the residence of the patriarch of the Church of the East (his "Nestorian" patriarch) commonly at Mosul in Diarbeck; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians at Mosul, at Diarbekr, and at Jeziret ibn-Omar a century or more apart, Gordon's for Diarbeck as a whole, which contains these places, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The earlier records name these towns only, so the rest of Iraq is not drawn at this step. GeoNames places Mosul in the Ninawa block, Diarbekr in the Diyarbakir block, and Jeziret ibn-Omar (Cizre) in the Sirnak block; 1700 is drawn with Gordon's Diarbeck.¹⁰¹⁶⁸¹⁶⁵¹⁶⁶¹⁰⁴
1600	New Spain, Peru, and Brazil	Present	Low	Both	The conquest and Christianization of the mainland began with Cortés in Mexico in 1519 and Pizarro in Peru in 1531, Rooy writes, and by the close of the sixteenth century each viceroyalty, New Spain (Mexico) and Peru (which included parts of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, and Chile), had some fifteen bishoprics; Jesuits reached Brazil in 1549, where the church developed more slowly. He describes great cruelty and heavy losses among Indigenous peoples during the conquest, and priests such as Bartolomé de Las Casas who fought for their rights. Low because the source names the viceroyalties, not how far the church had reached inside them, and the shape follows today's countries.¹³⁶
1600	Plovdiv (Filibe)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, so the Ottoman Balkans are drawn as a Christian majority. Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Filibe (Plovdiv), writes that the town's Christian households rose from 111 in 1489 to 231 in 1610, about 1,200 people, while its Muslims stayed at about 800 households, some 4,000 people. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the regional majority is kept; low because the town's own figure, 10 years after the step, points the other way. GeoNames places Plovdiv in the Plovdiv block.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁴⁸¹⁴⁹
1600	Sofia	Prevalent	Low	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, so the Ottoman Balkans are drawn as a Christian majority. Şahin, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that toward the end of the sixteenth century Sofia again had about 7,200 people, with 1,017 Muslim, 257 non-Muslim, 127 Jewish, and 37 Roma households; the row reads that span of years from its nearer end, the step itself. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the regional majority is kept; low because the city's own figure near the step points the other way. GeoNames places Sofia in the Grad Sofiya block.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁶⁷¹⁶⁸
1600	Spanish Florida and New Mexico	Present	Medium	Both	Catholic priests were in Florida as early as the 1520s, Albanese writes, and by 1595 there was serious missionary work there; in New Mexico, Franciscan friars who had come with the Spanish conquerors began in 1598 what she calls an era of forced mission presence among reluctant Pueblo peoples. Medium because the source describes both areas broadly.¹⁶⁹
1600	The Ionian Islands	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Venetians re-peopled Cephalonia with Christians in 1499, and Moll's of 1701 that Cephalonia was an episcopal see under the archbishop of Corfu whose people observed the rites of the Greek church; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in the Ionian Islands a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1600	The Latin West	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Pelikan writes that the ecclesiastical map of the West after the Reformation shows a Europe divided between an almost solidly Roman Catholic south and a predominantly Protestant north of Anglican, Lutheran, and Reformed churches; the row reads this as a majority in every block of the Latin West at 1600, after the Reformation of the sixteenth century; the statement gives no end date, so the later steps rest on their own sources. Parts of Hungary and Croatia lay under Ottoman rule in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (the Encyclopaedia Judaica dates the incorporation of central Hungary to 1541, and most of Hungary's coming under Habsburg rule to the beginning of the 18th century), and there Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century gives the same result. Medium because the statement covers half a continent and gives no figures; no figure in hand for any part shows otherwise.⁹⁷¹²³¹⁷⁰
1600	The Morea and Patras	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Hacısalihoğlu, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece, writes that the Muslim share of the Morea's people was calculated at 11 percent in 1583, a figure for the part that agrees. Hacısalihoğlu, who names Patras also as Balyabadra, counts Balyabadra among the Morea's towns, and GeoNames places Patras in the Western Greece block, so that block is drawn with the Morea. Medium because the statement is for the whole empire and the Morea's own figure falls 17 years from the step.¹²³¹⁴⁵¹⁷¹
1600 to 1700	Bosnia	Present	Medium	Both	Lampe writes that it took more than a hundred years after the Ottoman conquest for Muslims to become an absolute majority in Bosnia, and that by the end of the eighteenth century they were probably no longer the majority; his account of the part keeps the empire's Christian majority, in Quataert's statement, off Bosnia at these steps, at 1600 because the start of the Muslim majority is not dated. Mehmed II conquered Bosnia, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry writes, seven years after he took Istanbul in 1453. Lampe writes that several Orthodox monasteries were built in central, northern, and western Bosnia during the 16th century, apparently to serve newly settled Orthodox people, and that in 1697 an Austrian army took thousands of Roman Catholic Bosnians with it. Present because no source in hand states a Christian majority for Bosnia at these steps; medium because the source describes Bosnia broadly.¹⁴³¹²³¹⁴⁴
1600 to 1700	Epirus (Iannina)	Present	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years; for 1700, Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Greece, which he divides into Macedonia, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and the Morea, and among whose archbishoprics he lists Janina, that Christianity, for its number of professors, far more prevailed there than Islam. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania, whose Albania takes in Iannina, writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, a span that contains both steps, and that in its own day probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians were Muslims; that account of the part keeps the empire's majority, and at 1700 Gordon's statement for Greece as a whole, off the block, as it does for Albania, so the Christians are drawn as present. Medium because the article dates the conversion only by centuries. GeoNames places Ioannina in the block.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁴²⁶⁸¹⁷²
1600 to 1700	Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, and Kyiv	Present	Medium	Both	By the death of Sergii of Radonezh in 1392, Harakas writes, Moscow was the center of Russian Orthodoxy, and its metropolitan was made a patriarch in 1589; in the Polish and Lithuanian state, a significant Orthodox population remained under the metropolitan of Kyiv. In 1721 Peter the Great replaced the patriarch with a state church modeled on German Protestant ones, an arrangement that lasted until 1917. Kyiv is drawn here at 1700, not with the period books' Poland, because the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kiev entry dates the annexation of Kiev to Russia to 1667. Medium because the source names cities, not how far the church reached in their regions; from 1800 these blocks are drawn with Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus.¹¹⁴¹⁷³
1600 to 1700	Romania and Moldavia	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the Romanians, within the Greek-Byzantine tradition, have kept much of their Latin heritage. Quataert counts parts or all of Romania within the Ottoman Empire at its height, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and does not name Moldova; Harakas writes that the Ottomans put down the last resistance in Moldavia and Wallachia by 1490, and that the system under which the Orthodox under Ottoman rule were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople covered the whole area south of the Danube. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, as bounded on the north and west by the Danube, and those blocks are drawn with the Ottoman Balkans; no source in hand places the rest of Romania, or Moldova, south of the Danube, so Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians is not read down to them. Bosnia has rows of its own. Present because no other source in hand states a majority for these blocks at these steps; medium because the sources describe them broadly.¹¹⁴¹²³¹⁴⁷
1600 to 1700	The Ottoman Balkans	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century; the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece writes that Rhodes and the other Aegean islands came under Ottoman rule in Süleyman's time and were made a province of their own from 1533. For 1700, two period sources state a majority for parts of the area in words this map counts as majority words: Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Greece, which he divides into Macedonia, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and the Morea, and among whose archbishoprics he lists Saloniki, Larissa, Athens, Corinth, and Janina, that Christianity, for its number of professors, far more prevailed there than Islam, and Moll's of 1701 writes that in Romania, the old Thrace, between Mount Haemus and the Archipelago, the Christian religion of the Greek church was generally professed, though the government was all Muslim. These agree with Quataert's statement for the blocks within the two books' own bounds of Greece and Romania; the rest of the row, among it Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria north of Mount Haemus, rests on Quataert at both steps. The majority is read down to each block because no source in hand gives a figure for a whole block at these steps that shows otherwise; a town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, and where a town's own figure within 10 years of a step points the other way, its block is drawn apart at low confidence at that step, so the Sofia and Plovdiv blocks, and at 1700 the Edirne block, have rows of their own; at 1600 Edirne is drawn with Thrace. Thrace and Epirus have rows of their own at both steps: at 1600 their own accounts from outside the window keep the empire-wide majority off them; at 1700 Moll's Romania, Thrace's own statement, decides for Thrace, while the account of Albania that takes in Iannina keeps Gordon's Greece off Epirus. Serbia is drawn south of the Danube and the Save, Moll's bounds of Servia, with the three Banat blocks: Moll writes that the Turks took Temesvar in 1552 and that it had been the seat of a pasha ever since, and that the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) left the province of Temesvar, between the Tisza, the Maros, and the Danube, under Ottoman rule. Backa and Srem are drawn at 1700 with the Latin West and left blank at 1600, when no source in hand places them in this row's lands. The lands the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's Albania takes in, where it writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, have a row of their own, and so do Crete, which came under Ottoman rule in 1669, and the Morea, which, the same entry on Greece writes, passed to Venice between 1684 and 1686 and back to Ottoman rule in 1715, with the Western Greece block, which holds Patras, a Morea town in that entry that GeoNames places in that block. Medium because the statements are for the whole empire and for broad lands. At 1800 these blocks are drawn as present, since the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica gives a figure for European Turkey that shows no majority.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁵⁰¹⁴⁷¹⁴⁵¹⁴²⁶⁸¹²⁷¹⁷¹
1600 to 1800	Albania	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, and that in its own day (it reports events up to 1908) probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians were Muslims, with a considerable Christian population in the south; Harakas writes that Albania's people were predominantly Muslim before World War II. That account of the part decides for it, so Quataert's empire-wide Christian majority is not read down to Albania from 1600, nor, at 1700, Gordon's statement of 1699 that in Greece, whose divisions he names as taking in Albania, Christianity far more prevailed than Islam for its number of professors; the Christians are drawn as present, and 1850 has a row of its own. Medium because the article dates the conversion only by centuries.¹⁴²¹¹⁴⁶⁸
1600 to 1800	Crete	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the peoples of Crete trace the continuity of their church life to early Christianity. Hacısalihoğlu, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece, writes that Crete was sold to the Venetians in 1204, dates the start of Ottoman rule there to 1669, and gives the island about 160,000 Muslims and 129,000 Christians in 1821. Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century does not apply at 1600, when Venice held the island, and is not read down to it at 1700 and 1800, since the island's own figure, 21 years after 1800, points the other way, as a part's own figures decide for it. Present because no source in hand states a Christian majority for the island at these steps; medium because the source describes it broadly. 1850 has a row of its own.¹¹⁴¹⁴⁵¹²³
1600 to 1800	Kosovo, Dibra, Ochrida, and Plava (the 1911 Britannica's Albania)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania takes in north-eastern Albania, in the vilayet of Kossovo, with Prizren and Prishtina among its towns, and the districts of Dibra, Ochrida, Plava, and Gusinye, and writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries; it names an Orthodox metropolitan at Prizren and a Bulgarian bishop at Dibra in its own day. That account of the part decides for these blocks, as it does for Albania, so Quataert's empire-wide Christian majority is not read down to them from 1600, and the Christians are drawn as present. Harakas writes that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years; Aruçi, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that the Archbishopric of Ohrid continued after the Ottomans placed the other Balkan churches under the patriarchate, until the Ottoman government abolished it in 1767, and that in 1670 Evliya Çelebi counted 160 Christian and 300 Muslim households in the town. Medium because the article dates the conversion only by centuries.¹⁴²¹¹⁴¹²³¹⁵²¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹
1600 to 1800	Van	Present	Medium	Both	Nersoyan writes that the rival catholicate on the island of Al'thamar, in the province of Van, lasted from 1113 until its last incumbent died in 1895. Kılıç writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Van's castle passed to the Ottomans for good in 1548, that Evliya Çelebi and the archives show nine Muslim and three Armenian quarters in the city, and that in the middle of the seventeenth century the city had about 33,000 Muslims and 11,000 Armenians, and the sanjak about 85,000 Muslims, with no count of its Christians. Van's seventeenth-century figures, the only ones in hand for the part before 1897, point the other way, so Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century is not read down to Van, as a part's own figures decide for it; they fall too far from any step to draw a majority for either faith. Medium because the sources describe Armenia broadly, and name Van only through that see and those counts.⁸³¹⁸⁰¹²³
1600 to 1850	the Philippines	Present	Medium	Both	Johns writes that the Spanish established their rule in the Philippines in the second half of the sixteenth century, and Neill and Mullins that in the course of three and a half centuries of Spanish rule almost the entire population was brought into the Catholic Church, though a Muslim minority remained in the southern islands, which the Islam layer draws on the Sulu block. Medium because the sources describe the islands broadly and date the church's growth only by the span of Spanish rule, whose end, at 1900, is the first step drawn as a majority.⁹⁸¹⁸¹
1600 to 1900	the Coromandel coast	Present	Medium	Both	By the end of the sixteenth century, Neill writes, the Parava converts on the coast of Coromandel were one of three large groups of Indian Christians, and they have remained Indian Christians for four centuries; Neill and Mullins write that Protestant missionaries entered the Danish territory of Tranquebar in 1706. Medium because the sources describe the coast only broadly.⁹⁵⁹⁸
1700	Bohemia, with Moravia and Silesia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that under the name of Bohemia in general are comprehended Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia, lying between Austria on the south, Brandenburg and Lusatia on the north, and Poland on the east; that the Reformation began early in this kingdom and its Protestants were once very numerous, until persecution and war subjected them to the Roman Catholics; and that the Roman Catholic religion at present was alone predominant in the kingdom. The blocks are that kingdom by Moll's own bounds: today's Czech regions, with Moravia and Czech Silesia, and Poland's Lower Silesian, Opole, and Silesian blocks, which lay mostly in Silesia, by this site's reading. Medium because the source describes the kingdom as a whole and gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Brandenburg	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in Brandenburg the Lutheran religion was predominant, with the princes, bishops, and most of the people Lutherans and the rest Calvinists, and few or no Roman Catholics, and divides Brandenburg into three parts, called marches. The Lubusz block, outside both Moll's and Gordon's Poland, is drawn here: its north lay in the New March of Brandenburg and its south in Silesia, which Moll's Bohemia, also drawn as a Christian majority, takes in, by this site's reading. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	China (its sixteen provinces)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that, if the writings of some recent French missionaries may be believed, Christianity had of late gained considerable footing in China, especially in the province of Nankin, and that the emperor had allowed it by a public edict throughout the empire; Neill writes that the Jesuit mission Matteo Ricci brought to Beijing in 1601 went on, with varying fortunes, through nearly three centuries. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are those of the sixteen provinces into which Gordon divides China, in a table whose names the scan's text garbles and its page image shows, Leaotung (Liaoning) and Junnan (Yunnan) among them, with Hainan read as part of Quantung (Guangdong), by this site's reading. Present because the words do not state a majority; medium because the source describes the country broadly.⁶⁸⁹⁵
1700	Cuba	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Santiago de Cuba, though reduced almost to a village, still kept its episcopal see under the metropolitan of Santo Domingo. Medium because the source names one town, and the shape is the whole island.¹²⁷
1700	Cyprus	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the island's people were Greeks and Turks, the Greeks professing Christianity by the teachings of the Greek church, and Moll's of 1701 that though the island was subject to the Turks it was chiefly inhabited by Christian Greeks, who had an archbishop at Nicosia and three bishops, at Famagusta, Paphos, and Amathus. "Chiefly" is a word this map counts as stating a majority; medium because the sources describe the island broadly and give no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	Denmark and Norway	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Lutheran faith had been the only religion professed in Denmark since Christian III, apart from one French Calvinist church at Copenhagen and one Catholic chapel at Gluckstadt, and Gordon's of 1699 that in all the Danish dominions no other religion but Lutheranism was professed, apart from some French with a church at Copenhagen and a few Catholic families. Gordon describes Norway as a kingdom subject to the Danish king, so the row reads the Danish dominions as including it; he adds, in a sentence whose opening the scan loses, that on the borders of Lapland the people differed little from non-Christians, so Finnmark and Troms are drawn as present. Medium because neither source gives a count.¹²⁷⁶⁸
1700	Diarbeck (Mesopotamia)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Diarbeck, his name for Mesopotamia, that the Armenian tongue was chiefly used there in divine service (a word for the language of worship, not for a share of the people), places the residence of the patriarch of the Church of the East (his "Nestorian" patriarch) commonly at Mosul in Diarbeck, places Ourfa (Urfa) in Diarbeck, and names the Christians and Jews of the parts near Bagdat. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named region draws that region, for every faith; the blocks are today's Iraq and the Sanliurfa, Diyarbakir, Mardin, Batman, Siirt, and Sirnak blocks, by this site's reading of Gordon's Diarbeck. Medium because the source describes the region broadly. GeoNames places Mosul in the Ninawa block and Urfa in the Sanliurfa block.⁶⁸¹⁶⁵¹¹³
1700	Edirne (Adrianople)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, so the Ottoman Balkans are drawn as a Christian majority. Gökbilgin, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that from the count of 1703, three years after the step, the city's people are estimated at some 30,000 to 40,000, 12 percent of them non-Muslims. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in Romania, the old Thrace, among whose chief cities he names Adrianople, the Christian religion of the Greek church was generally professed, though the government was all Muslim, a word this map counts as stating a majority. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the regional majority is kept; low because the city's own figure near the step points the other way.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁵⁰¹²⁷¹⁶⁰
1700	Georgia (Kartli and Kakheti)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the chiefest part of the people of Georgia, which he divides into the provinces of Gaguetia and Carduel, professed the Christian religion, and that the rest followed Islam, which the king of Persia favored; "the chiefest part" is a phrase this map counts as stating a majority. The blocks are those of Kakheti and Kartli, by this site's reading of the two provinces' names, as in the Islam layer. Toumanoff writes that the Georgian episcopal sees numbered some 77 in the 17th century. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.¹²⁷⁸⁸
1700	Goa	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Goa, the seat of the Portuguese viceroy, was the see of an archbishop and was adorned with many churches and convents. Medium because the source names the city only, drawn as today's state of Goa.¹²⁷
1700	Hamburg	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the inhabitants of Hamburg, a free and imperial city, were Lutherans, and that the English merchants there were allowed the free exercise of their religion, which was denied to other nations. A statement about the inhabitants as a whole is counted as stating a majority, and the city makes up the block, by this site's reading, so its statement decides for the block. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Hesse (Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes of Hesse-Cassel that "the Landgrave, with his [Subjects], are of the [Calvinist] Religion", and of the landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt that "he is of the Lutheran Religion, as are [also most] of his [Subjects]"; the words in brackets are garbled in the scan's text and are given here as they can be made out. "Most" is a word this map counts as stating a majority, and a statement about the subjects as a whole is counted the same way, as the Hamburg row counts Moll's statement on that city's inhabitants. Moll's Hessen takes in, besides the two landgraviates, the abbeys of Fulda and Hersfeld, the Wetterau with several principalities and lordships, and several imperial cities; the Hessen block lay mostly in the two landgraviates, Lower Hesse with Cassel and the lands he lists under Darmstadt, with Marburg, Giessen, and Katzenelnbogen, by this site's reading of his bounds and table. Low because the words the reading rests on are damaged in the scan, though each can still be made out, as for Moll's Lower Saxony.¹²⁷
1700	Italy (Gordon's Italy)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Italians, as to their religion, were zealous professors of the Roman church's teaching, and that the Jews there were allowed the public exercise of their religion. He treats the Italians as the country's people and names the Jews as living among them, so the sentence is read for the people as a whole, a statement this map counts as stating a majority, as it counts Moll's statements on the inhabitants of Hamburg and on the Savoyards. Italy is drawn within Gordon's bounds, as the Jewish layer reads them: he divides Upper Italy into Piedmont, Montferrat, Milan, Parma, Modena, Mantua, the republics of Venice and Genoa, and the bishopric of Trent, and the middle and lower parts run south to the Kingdom of Naples. He treats Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica apart, among the islands, and the Bozen, Gorizia, Trieste, and Sondrio blocks lay outside the parts he lists, by this site's reading; Moll describes Tyrol and Goritz among the Austrian lands and writes that the Grisons possessed the Valtellina. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	Kongo	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Sao Salvador, which the people called Banza, the capital of the kingdom of Kongo, was the seat of both a Christian king and a bishop. Medium because the source names only the capital; GeoNames places Mbanza Kongo in the Zaire block.¹²⁷¹⁵⁶
1700	Lower Saxony	Prevalent	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Lutheran religion was generally predominant throughout Lower Saxony, its princes and prelates professing it, except the bishop of Hildesheim and some abbots and abbesses who professed the Roman Catholic religion; "generally" is a word this map counts as stating a majority. He gives Lower Saxony as the duchies of Brunswick, Lüneburg, Lauenburg, Bremen, Verden, Mecklenburg, and Holstein, the diocese of Hildesheim, and the principalities of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, with lesser states and the cities of Hamburg and Lubeck, and bounds it by the German Ocean, Denmark, and the Baltic on the north, Hessen and Upper Saxony on the south, Pomerania and Brandenburg on the east, and Westphalia on the west. The blocks are those that lay mostly within those bounds, by this site's reading of the circle's bounds at 1700; the Sachsen-Anhalt block, which holds Magdeburg and Halberstadt but lay mostly outside them, is drawn with Moll's Upper Saxony, and Hamburg has a row of its own. Low because the words the reading rests on are damaged in the scan, though each can still be made out.¹²⁷
1700	Muscovy and Ukraine	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Christian religion was professed throughout all Europe except the part the Turks held, and that the Russians, as they received Christianity from Constantinople, had always continued in the faith and practice of the Greek church; his Muscovy runs east to the Volga provinces of Kazan, Samara, Saratov, and Astrakhan and south to the Caspian Sea. The blocks are those of European Russia and Ukraine within his Muscovy and his Europe, by this site's reading, without the lands he places under the Turks or allied to them (Moldavia, Bessarabia, the Tartary of Oczakow, and Little Tartary between the Dnieper and the mouth of the Don), the Caucasus beyond the Don, which he calls the boundary of Europe, and the steppe toward the southern Urals, which this reading does not place in his Muscovy. Moscow, Novgorod, Pskov, Kyiv, the Crimea, and the lands of Moll's and Gordon's Poland (Belarus, Ukraine west of the Dnieper, and Ducal Prussia) have rows of their own at this step. Present because Moll's words do not state a majority; medium because he describes the country broadly.¹²⁷
1700	Narea (Abyssinia)	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Abyssinians took up Christianity and keep a patriarch confirmed by the patriarch of Alexandria, and names Narea among the provinces left to their emperor, beside Tigrea, Bagamidri, Dambea, Goyama, Xoa, and Amara. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, by its own bounds, for every faith. GeoNames places Narea, by this site's reading, as Limmu-Enarea, in the Oromiya block, as the Islam layer places it at 1800. Medium because the source names the province and gives no count, drawn as the far larger block that holds it.¹²⁷¹⁸²
1700	Natolia (Asia Minor)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in Natolia, the former Asia Minor, where the established religion was Islam, people of all professions were tolerated, so that there were great multitudes of Christians, particularly Greeks, and of all sorts, Armenians among them. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Smyrna was inhabited by a great number of Turks and also by Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and the consuls of several European nations, and that Pergamum was inhabited by Turks and some few Christian families who lived by farming. Medium because the sources describe Natolia broadly and name only two of its towns; the shape is the Asia Minor of the earlier steps, without Cilicia, Constantinople, Edessa, Van, and historic Armenia, which have rows of their own.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	New Mexico	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Santa Fe, which some called New Mexico, was a neat city with an episcopal see and the Spanish governor's court, built of stone by the Spaniards a few years before in the middle of the kingdom, and that the Spaniards sought to convert its peoples to their religion. Medium because the source names one town, and the shape is today's state.¹²⁷
1700	New Spain, Peru, Chile, Paraguay, and Brazil	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of New Spain, which he divides into the audiences of Mexico, Guadalajara, and Guatemala (with Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Veragua, and Honduras), were partly Christian, partly of their own religions, and partly a mixture of the two, that the Spaniards there were Roman Catholics, and that multitudes of the native peoples had been converted; that some Peruvians, in a Peru whose provinces include Pacamores and Los Charcas, had been converted to Christianity; that in Chile and Paraguay (with Tucuman and Rio de la Plata) the Spaniards living there were Roman Catholics, and that some of Chile's people had been converted; and that in Brazil many of those living near and upon the coasts had been converted by the Portuguese. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are today's countries within those lands, by this site's reading. Rooy writes that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Indigenous villages organized in the sixteenth often became mission villages. Present because the words do not state a majority; medium because the source describes the lands broadly.⁶⁸¹³⁶
1700	Plovdiv (Filibe)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, so the Ottoman Balkans are drawn as a Christian majority. Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Filibe (Plovdiv), writes that the town's growing Christian population can be followed in two poll-tax registers of the second half of the seventeenth century, the second of which counts 2,290 Christian men, about 1,700 households, without a Muslim figure, so no figure by faith for the town points the other way near the step. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in Romania, the old Thrace, among whose chief cities he names Philippopolis and Adrianople, the Christian religion of the Greek church was generally professed, though the government was all Muslim, a word this map counts as stating a majority. Medium because the statements are for the whole empire and for Thrace as a whole. GeoNames places Plovdiv in the Plovdiv block.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁴⁸¹²⁷¹⁴⁹
1700	Poland (with Red Russia, Podolia, Volhynia, and Prussia)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of Poland were for the most part professors of the Church of Rome's teaching, with many of the Greek church and of other faiths among them, and Moll's of 1701 that this church had been predominant there since the conversion of about 964, except in Red Russia, whose people followed the Greek church, with whole cities of Lutherans in Prussia. Both describe the kingdom with its later additions: Moll names Lithuania, Red Russia, Podolia, Volhynia, Masovia, Prussia, Samogitia, and part of Livonia, and Gordon divides it into provinces that include Volhynia, with the palatinates of Lutsk and Kyiv, Podolia, Little Russia, Prussia, and Warsovia, a duchy whose chief town was Warsaw, and considers the state as the kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania. The blocks are those lands, by the two books' own bounds: today's Poland without the Lower Silesian, Opole, Silesian, Lubusz, and West Pomeranian blocks, which lay mostly in Silesia, which Moll describes with the kingdom of Bohemia, and in Brandenburg and Pomerania, which he describes among the lands of Germany; the Kaliningrad block for Ducal Prussia; and nine Ukrainian blocks west of the Dnieper that lay mostly in the provinces the two books name, by this site's reading: Volyn, Rivne, Zhytomyr, Khmelnytskyi, Vinnytsia, Ternopil, Lviv, Ivano-Frankivsk, and Cherkasy, the last lying mostly west of the river. The Kyiv blocks are drawn with Moscow at this step, since the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kiev entry dates the annexation of Kiev to Russia to 1667, after which neither book's account of the palatinate fits the city. The grand duchy of Lithuania, today's Lithuania and Belarus, has a row of its own, since both books' accounts of Lithuania keep the majority off it. Latvia, where the kingdom held only part of Livonia, is drawn as present with the rest of the Latin West. Medium because neither gives a count and both describe the kingdom as a whole.¹²⁷⁶⁸
1700	Pomerania (the West Pomeranian block)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 titles a chapter the marquisate and electorate of Brandenburg with Magdeburg and Halberstadt and the duchy of Pomerania, and writes in it, after listing the elector's other estates, part of Pomerania among them, that the Lutheran religion was predominant, the princes, bishops, and most of the people being of that persuasion; "most" is a word this map counts as stating a majority, and this site reads the statement for the lands the chapter describes. He bounds Pomerania by the Baltic on the north, Prussia on the east, Brandenburg on the south, and Mecklenburg on the west, and writes that the treaty of Osnabrück and Münster in 1648 divided it, the king of Sweden holding the part west of the Oder and the elector the part east of it. The West Pomeranian block, outside both Moll's and Gordon's Poland, lay mostly in Pomerania, by this site's reading. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Portugal	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Patrick Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the teachings of the Church of Rome were universally embraced by the Portuguese, and that some foreigners, among them the English merchants at Lisbon, were allowed to worship in public. Medium because the source describes the kingdom as a whole and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Puerto Rico	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that San Juan de Puerto Rico, the island's capital, was a bishop's see. Medium because the source names the city only, drawn as the whole island.¹²⁷
1700	Santo Domingo	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Santo Domingo, the chief of the towns the Spaniards held on the island, was dignified with the residence of an archbishop and a university. Medium because the source names the city only, drawn as the Dominican Republic.¹²⁷
1700	Sardinia and Corsica	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699, describing Corsica and Sardinia together among the islands of the Mediterranean, writes that "The Inhabitants of both these Islands adhere to the Roman Church"; the scan's text loses the words after "adhere to the", and its page image shows them. A statement about the inhabitants as a whole is counted as stating a majority, as for Hamburg and for Gordon's Italians. The blocks are the two islands. Medium because the source gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Savoy	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes of the Savoyards that "They are all of the Roman Catholick Religion", a statement this map counts as stating a majority. He bounds Savoy by the Lake of Geneva and the Valais on the north, Piedmont on the east, Dauphiné on the south, and the Rhone on the west; the blocks are Savoie and Haute-Savoie, by this site's reading of those bounds. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Scotland	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the inhabitants of Scotland, apart from a few who still adhered to the Church of Rome and an inconsiderable number of Quakers, were all of the Reformed religion; all of them, by his account, were Christians, a statement this map counts as stating a majority. The blocks are Scotland's, by this site's reading. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Sofia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Quataert writes that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians, and Harakas that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century, so the Ottoman Balkans are drawn as a Christian majority. The TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Sofia gives no figure by faith for the city within 10 years of this step (its nearest counts are Petar Bogdan's of 1640, which Şahin calls greatly exaggerated, and those of 1872 to 1873), so the block is drawn with the regional majority. Medium because the statement is for the whole empire.¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁶⁷¹⁶⁸
1700	Spain	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Herman Moll's geography of 1701 writes that since the Inquisition was established in Spain in 1478, no other religion but the Roman Catholic has been professed or tolerated there; the row reads a statement that no other religion was professed as saying that most people professed this one. Medium because the source describes the kingdom as a whole and gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Sweden, Finland, and Estland	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Lutheranism, the established religion of Sweden, was universally professed by all orders of men, except in Livonia, where Catholics lived among them, and in Lapland, many of whose people, he writes, were not Christians; his Sweden includes Finland, Ingria, and Livonia with Estland. The row leaves the Lapland districts he names (Ume, Pite, and Torne Lapmark), in the blocks of Norrbotten, Västerbotten, and Finnish Lapland, to the present row. Medium because the source gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The coasts of the Mughal empire	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that dispersed through the Mughal's dominions was a considerable number of Jews, and that upon the sea coasts were many European Christians, all for the sake of trade. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the sentence places the Christians on the coasts, so the blocks are the coastal blocks of the empire as the Islam and Jewish layers read Gordon's bounds: Sind, Gujarat, and Bengal (West Bengal and Bangladesh). Medium because the source describes the coasts broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The Crimea	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of the Crim Tartars were zealous followers of Islam, and that many Christians, especially Greeks and Armenians, and a considerable number of Roman Catholics lived among them. Moll's of 1701 writes that Caffa, the chief city of the peninsula, had 5,000 or 6,000 houses inhabited mostly by Christians, who had many churches, with some Turks and a few Tartars, and that Mangup was inhabited by Turks and Greeks. Medium because the sources describe the peninsula broadly; a town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so Caffa's is not read for the Crimea as a whole. The shape is the Crimea block, as the Islam layer draws the khanate.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	The grand duchy of Lithuania (Lithuania and Belarus)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 considers the Polish state as the kingdom of Poland and the grand duchy of Lithuania, and writes that its people were for the most part professors of the Church of Rome's teaching, with many of the Greek church and other faiths among them; apart from the Lutherans, mostly in Prussia, and the Armenians, in Russia, he places the rest in greatest numbers through the various parts of Lithuania, and in a sentence that follows, whose opening the scan's text loses, he describes a people who differed little or nothing from non-Christians. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that after Jagiello brought in Christianity the old worship of Lithuania was suppressed, but that the lower sort in many places still kept some remains of it, and that in Samogitia, today's western Lithuania, the inhabitants of some of the more desolate parts still followed it. Both books' Lithuania is the grand duchy, which took in today's Belarus: Moll writes that the parliament of Lithuania met by turns at Novogrodek and at Minsk. This site reads the two books' accounts of Lithuania for the grand duchy as a whole, as an account of the part that keeps the kingdom's majority off it, so the Lithuanian and Belarusian blocks are drawn as present. Medium because neither source gives a count and both describe the grand duchy broadly.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	The Ionian Islands	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Cephalonia, an episcopal see under the archbishop of Corfu, had been subject to Venice for several ages and that its people observed the rites of the Greek church, and Gordon's of 1699 that the Greeks were very numerous on Corfu and had a vicar-general. Medium because the sources name two of the islands and give no count.¹²⁷⁶⁸
1700	The Morea and Patras	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Greece, which he divides into Macedonia, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and the Morea, that Christianity, for its number of professors, far more prevailed there than Islam, words this map counts as stating a majority, read for the Morea as a part of Gordon's Greece. Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the Morea passed to Venice between 1684 and 1686 and back to Ottoman rule in 1715, so Quataert's statement about Ottoman subjects is not read down to it at this step, and that the Muslim share of the Morea's people was calculated at 11 percent in 1583, a figure for the part that agrees. Hacısalihoğlu, who names Patras also as Balyabadra, counts Balyabadra among the Morea's towns, and GeoNames places Patras in the Western Greece block, so that block is drawn with the Morea. Medium because the source describes Greece broadly.¹⁴⁵¹²³⁶⁸¹⁷¹
1700	The rest of the Latin West	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Christian religion was professed throughout all Europe except the part the Turks held, and the Encyclopaedia Judaica writes that most of Hungary had come under Habsburg rule by the beginning of the 18th century. No statement in hand for these blocks is read as a majority within 10 years of 1700. The lands for which a statement is so read have rows of their own, among them Scotland, Savoy, Hamburg, Moll's Lower and Upper Saxony, Hesse, the lands of Moll's Brandenburg chapter, the lands of Moll's and Gordon's Poland, Moll's Bohemia, with Moravia and Silesia, Gordon's Italy, and Sardinia and Corsica, as does the grand duchy of Lithuania; for some of the rest, the reasons are these. Moll writes of France that at that time none dared own any religion other than that of the Roman church; this site does not read a sentence on what people dared to own openly, which implies that some held another religion without owning it, as a statement that no other religion was professed, as it reads his sentence on Spain, so France is drawn as present. Moll writes that the established religion of Hungary was the Roman Catholic, though the number of Protestants was very great, and then that "as we have said" it was the predominant religion; this site reads that word as restating the established religion, not as describing most of the people, and reads Gordon's sentence that the Church of Rome's was the prevailing religion there, especially since the emperor's late conquests, with great multitudes holding to Luther's and Calvin's teaching, the same way, so Hungary is drawn as present. Moll's statements on the religion of single cities decide only where the city makes up the block: his statement that only the Roman Catholic religion was professed in Vienna, which makes up the Wien block, is drawn in a row of its own, while his statements on the inhabitants of Strasbourg, Ulm, and Nuremberg are not, since none of these cities makes up a block. Gordon's statement that no religion but Lutheranism was professed in all the Danish dominions is not read for Iceland, where Moll writes that the Lutheran religion was professed in the towns but the older worship was still followed in the inner parts. Gordon describes Sicily apart from Italy, among the islands, and writes that the religion established and publicly professed there was the same as in Italy and Spain, a statement about the established religion; the Bozen, Gorizia, Trieste, and Sondrio blocks lie outside Gordon's Italy, by this site's reading. The Serbian Backa and Srem blocks lie north of the Danube and the Save, outside Moll's Servia; Moll writes that the Treaty of Carlowitz left to the Turks only the part of Slavonia toward Belgrade, east of a line from the mouth of the Bosut to the Tisza opposite Titel, and the province of Temesvar east of the Tisza, so Backa lay with the emperor's Hungary, and the Srem block, which that line divides, is drawn as present with it. Medium because Moll's statement covers the continent and gives no count.¹²⁷⁶⁸¹⁷⁰
1700	The sea-port towns of the peninsula within the Ganges	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in most of the sea-port towns and places of trade of the peninsula of India within the Ganges were Jews in considerable numbers and many European Christians, especially those of the English factories. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are the peninsula's coastal blocks, by this site's reading of Gordon's bounds, as in the Islam layer: Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Puducherry's small coastal enclaves. Kerala, Goa, and Tamil Nadu have Christian rows of their own at this step. Medium because the source names no town and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The Spanish provinces and Holland	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in the Low Countries the Roman Catholic religion alone was professed in the Spanish provinces, among them Brabant, Flanders, Hainaut, Namur, and Luxembourg, while in Holland, which he sets against them after telling how seven provinces broke away, Calvin's teaching was predominant, with toleration of all others. The row reads the two statements together for today's Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Medium because the source gives no count, and its sentence does not name the country of Liege, which it lists beside the ten Spanish provinces.¹²⁷
1700	Thrace (Moll's Romania)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in Romania, the old Thrace, between Mount Haemus and the Archipelago, among whose towns he names Abdera and Rodosto, the Christian religion of the Greek church was generally professed, though the government was all Muslim; "generally" is a word this map counts as stating a majority. Moll's Romania is Thrace's own statement, within 10 years of the step, so it decides for these blocks over the later account of the vilayet of Adrianople that keeps the majority off them at 1600 and 1850 (and off Thrace at 1500). Gordon's of 1699 writes of Greece, which he divides into Macedonia, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and the Morea, that Christianity, for its number of professors, far more prevailed there than Islam, a statement for a larger area that agrees for the Macedonian part of the eastern block; Epirus, which the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's Albania takes in, is drawn as present in a row of its own, as Albania is. The blocks are Thrace within Moll's bounds; Edirne has a row of its own. Medium because the sources describe the lands broadly.¹²⁷⁶⁸¹²³
1700	Upper Saxony, with Magdeburg, Halberstadt, and the Old March	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes of Upper Saxony that "The [Religion] of the Inhabitants is generally the Lutheran", with some Calvinists and Roman Catholics; the word in brackets is garbled in the scan's text, but the words the reading rests on are legible, and "generally" is a word this map counts as stating a majority. He gives Upper Saxony as the duchy and electorate of Saxony, the marquisates of Misnia and Lusatia, the landgraviate of Thuringia, the principality of Anhalt, and the duchies of Hall, Merseburg, Naumburg, and Altenburg, and bounds it by Magdeburg, Halberstadt, and Brandenburg on the north, Franconia and Bohemia on the south, Silesia on the east, and Hesse and Brunswick on the west; the Sachsen and Thüringen blocks lay mostly within those bounds, by this site's reading. The Sachsen-Anhalt block holds, by the same reading, part of them (Anhalt, Wittenberg, Hall, Merseburg, and Naumburg) and two other lands. One is Magdeburg and Halberstadt, which Moll counts in Lower Saxony, where he writes that the Lutheran religion was generally predominant, and among the estates of the elector of Brandenburg, in a chapter he titles the marquisate and electorate of Brandenburg with Magdeburg and Halberstadt and the duchy of Pomerania. The other is the Old March of Brandenburg, with Stendal and Salzwedel, part of the marquisate itself. In that chapter he writes, after listing the elector's other estates, that the Lutheran religion was predominant, the princes, bishops, and most of the people being of that persuasion, a statement this site reads for the lands the chapter describes. Each part of the block thus has a statement of a Lutheran majority, and the statements are read together for it. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Vienna	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes of Vienna that "The Roman Catholick Religion only is here profess'd", which, he adds, obliged the Protestants to go as far as Presburg to church. The row reads a statement that no other religion was professed as saying that most people professed this one, as the Spain row reads Moll's sentence on Spain, and the city makes up the Wien block, by this site's reading, so its statement decides for the block, as Hamburg's does. Medium because the source gives no count.¹²⁷
1700 to 1800	New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia	Present	High	Both	Many British North American colonies were settled in the seventeenth century by people fleeing religious persecution in Europe, the Library of Congress's exhibition writes: New England, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were founded as religious settlements, and even Virginia, planned as a commercial venture, was led by men who saw themselves as militant Protestants. Albanese writes that Virginia was settled by members of the Church of England and that Methodist and Baptist churches grew rapidly in the early republic.¹⁸³¹⁶⁹
1700 to 1800	Spanish Florida	Present	Low	Both	Albanese writes that by 1595 there was serious missionary work in Florida, and that as early as the mid-nineteenth century Roman Catholicism was the single largest Christian denomination in the United States as a whole, which contains Florida, drawn at 1850; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Florida a century or more apart, Albanese's statement about the United States counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Spaniards, once masters of almost all of Florida's coasts, had by degrees abandoned most of them, and that the English held the maritime coasts, without saying where Christians lived.¹⁶⁹¹²⁷
1700 to 1800	Vietnam	Present	Medium	Both	Catholic missions had notable success in Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Neill and Mullins write. Medium because the source describes the country broadly.⁹⁸
1700 to 1850	French Canada	Present	Medium	Both	French Jesuits and Franciscan Recollets preached in New France, the Jesuits especially among the Hurons, and by 1668, Albanese writes, Jesuits were preaching among the Iroquois; Catholicism, she writes, was in northern North America to stay, and in New France military defeat ended its official establishment. After Quebec fell to the British in 1760, Catholicism stayed bound to French Canadian identity. Medium because the source speaks of New France, not how far into today's Quebec the church reached.¹⁶⁹
1700 to 1850	New Granada and Venezuela	Present	Low	Both	Throughout Latin America, Rooy writes, the Indigenous villages organized in the sixteenth century often became reductions, mission villages set up by the religious orders, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and he writes of Catholic and Protestant missionary strategy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Scholars differ, he reports, on whether the missions brought an outward imposition of church forms, a blend of religions, or a partial or full conversion. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Terra Firma, which takes in these lands, that the different Europeans living there were of the same religion as, and the scan loses the rest of the sentence. Low because the shape follows today's countries, the source does not say how far into the interior the church reached, and at 1700 the period source's words are damaged in the scan.¹³⁶⁶⁸
1700 to 1850	Persia	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that there were many Christians in Persia, whom he calls Nestorians, as well as several Jesuits. For 1800, the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Persia (1810), which describes the state of Persia in 1788 from Francklin's tour of 1786 and 1787, writes that the shah usually employed his Armenian subjects to trade for him in every part of the world; for 1850, the eighth edition's article (1859), in the present tense, names the Armenians, with the Jews and the Zoroastrians, among those who paid a capitation tax, and counts Nestorians among the 25,000 people of the town of Urumiyah. The Armenians are a people the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica lists as Christian. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. Medium because the sources describe the country broadly and give no count; Lake Urmia, where the New Catholic Encyclopedia places the Church of the East's chief center in the nineteenth century, has a row of its own at 1900.⁶⁸¹⁸⁴¹⁸⁵¹⁸⁶
1700 to 1850	the West Indies	Present	Medium	Both	The sixteenth and seventeenth centuries have been called the missionary centuries in the New World, Simpson notes; France's Code Noir of 1685 required that slaves in its islands be baptized Catholic, a rule colonists largely ignored, a Lutheran congregation was founded on Saint Thomas in 1666, and Moravian, Methodist, and Baptist missions followed in the eighteenth century; the islands he names include Antigua, Saint Kitts, Jamaica, Barbados, Tobago, Trinidad, and Haiti. Much of the enslaved population, he writes, was exposed only superficially to Christian teaching during slavery, which lasted into the nineteenth century, and despite disillusionment with the historical churches after emancipation, Christianity has continued to spread widely in the region. Medium because the source describes the area broadly; Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Dominican Republic, which it does not name at these steps, are left out.¹⁵⁷
1700 to 1900	Kyushu (the hidden Christians)	Present	Low	Both	After the church's elimination in 1638, Neill and Mullins write, missionaries entering Japan again in 1859 found that a remnant of believers had maintained the faith in many of its essentials; some of these hidden Christians rejoined the Catholic Church once it was reestablished, while many others continued to practice their own version of the faith in small isolated communities on the island of Kyushu. Low because the source places the hidden Christians only on Kyushu, after 1859, and says nothing of where they lived before.⁹⁸
1800	Asiatic Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for the passage, writes that the Turks had become Muslims by the time they took Constantinople, while the people they ruled were Christians, and that in Turkey the two remain distinct "to this day", half of the state being the Turks and half the people they ruled. The same edition's article on Turkey writes that a considerable part of the empire's people were Jews and Christian merchants from Europe, known as Franks, and that the Greeks kept their priests, bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs; it divides Asiatic Turkey into Natolia (Asia Minor), Diarbec (Mesopotamia), Syria with Judaea, Georgia, Turcomania (Armenia), Irac-Arabia, and Kurdistan, and counts Cyprus among the islands belonging to Turkey. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are those provinces and Cyprus, by this site's reading, as the Islam layer reads the same sentence, less those with Christian rows of their own (Cilicia, Constantinople, Van, historic Armenia, greater Syria, and West Georgia with Ajaria). The passage gives a half, not a majority; medium because it covers the state as a whole.³⁸¹⁸⁷¹¹³¹⁶⁵
1800	Bosnia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Lampe writes that in the eighteenth century there was strong growth in Bosnia's Christian population, and that by the end of the century the Muslims were probably no longer in the majority. Lampe describes Bosnia's people as Muslims and Orthodox and Catholic Christians and names no other large community, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica counts 35 percent Muslims and 64 percent Orthodox and Catholic Christians in 1895; so the row reads his words as a Christian majority: if Muslims were no longer a majority, Christians, the only other large community, were. His account of Bosnia itself decides for this block, as a part's account does, and agrees with Quataert's statement that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians. The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church; that figure covers European Turkey as a whole and draws its other blocks as present at this step, but Lampe's account of Bosnia is the more specific one. Medium because Lampe's statement is hedged and the figure for European Turkey as a whole shows no majority.¹⁴³¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁸⁸¹⁸⁹
1800	California	Present	Low	Both	In California, Albanese writes, efforts to convert the Indians proceeded less violently under the Franciscan Junípero Serra (1713 to 1784), and at its height the system of missions he established drew over 21,000 Indians, who settled around the missions in farm communities. Low because the source dates the missions only by Serra's lifetime, which ended before this step.¹⁶⁹
1800	Edirne (Adrianople)	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church; that figure for European Turkey decides for its blocks, so Quataert's statement that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians is not read down to Edirne at this step, and the Christians are drawn as present. Harakas writes that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople to the middle of the nineteenth century. Gökbilgin, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that the city became relatively deserted from the second half of the eighteenth century and that most of its Muslims left in the war of 1828 to 1829, and gives no figure by faith for it within 10 years of the step. Medium because the figure covers European Turkey as a whole.¹⁸⁸¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1800	European Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church. That figure for European Turkey decides for its blocks, as a part's figure does, so neither the continent-wide majority nor Quataert's statement that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians is read down to them at this step, and the Christians are drawn as present. The same edition's article on Asia writes that in Turkey the Muslim Turks and the Christians they ruled remain distinct "to this day", half of the state being each, and its article on Turkey that the Greeks kept their priests, bishops, archbishops, and patriarchs, a statement of Christians in the named country that agrees. Harakas writes that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century. Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Yenişehir (Larissa), writes that in 1791 two geographers described it as a large town whose Turks were more numerous than its Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, that in 1799 Felix de Beaujour put half of its some 20,000 people as Turks and half as Greeks and Jews, and that in 1801 Edward Dodwell found its Greeks only a small group; these count peoples, which this map does not read as a share by faith, and with the block drawn as present they no longer bear on its level. Bosnia, Edirne, the Morea, Crete, Albania, and the lands the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's Albania takes in, except Epirus, which is drawn here, have rows of their own. Serbia is drawn south of the Danube and the Save, Moll's bounds of Servia; the blocks north of those rivers, in none of the provinces the 1810 article on Turkey lists, are drawn with the Latin West. Medium because the figure covers European Turkey as a whole and gives no figures for its parts.¹⁸⁸³⁸¹⁸⁷¹²³¹¹⁴¹⁵³¹²⁷
1800	Goa	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 places an archbishop's see and many churches at Goa, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan, in a volume dated 1856, which lists Portuguese Goa among the territories it counts, writes that British, Armenians, Portuguese, and other Christians were intermingled, in very small proportions, with the Hindus and Muslims; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Goa a century or more apart, the 1856 article's statement about Hindustan counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.¹²⁷¹⁹⁰
1800	Iberia (Kartli and Kakheti)	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that the catholicate of Iberia, recognized as autocephalous between 486 and 488, though still dependent on Antioch, was abolished in 1811, and that the Georgian episcopal sees numbered some 30 on the eve of the annexation of 1811; the row reads the catholicate as carrying this step. Present because no source in hand states a majority for these blocks within 10 years of 1800; medium because the source describes Iberia broadly.⁸⁸¹²¹
1800	Kentucky and Ohio	Present	High	Both	By the turn of the nineteenth century, Albanese writes, the Second Great Awakening brought a new generation of converts, and in Kentucky and Ohio lengthy camp meetings drew massive crowds.¹⁶⁹
1800	New Mexico	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 places a see and the Spanish governor's court at Santa Fe, and Albanese writes that as early as the mid-nineteenth century Roman Catholicism was the single largest Christian denomination in the United States as a whole, which contains New Mexico, drawn at 1850; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in New Mexico a century or more apart, Albanese's statement about the United States counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹²⁷¹⁶⁹
1800	New South Wales	Present	Medium	Both	British penal settlements were established in New South Wales in 1788, Brown writes, and Anglican chaplains to the settlements were the first clergy to arrive. Medium because the source places the settlements on the east coast, not across today's state.¹⁹¹
1800	Rangoon	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which draws its account of the Birman empire from Symes's embassy and gives no year for this passage, writes that at Rangoon, the Birmans' chief seaport, Armenians, Portuguese, French, and English lived among traders from all the East and enjoyed the most liberal toleration in religion, and that in the same street could be heard the muezzin calling Muslims to prayer and the bell of the Portuguese chapel summoning Roman Catholics. Medium because the source names the town only, drawn as the block that holds it, where GeoNames places Rangoon (Yangon).³⁸¹⁹²
1800	Romania and Moldavia	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that the Romanians, within the Greek-Byzantine tradition, have kept much of their Latin heritage, and that by the fourteenth century metropolitanates had been set up in various parts of the Romanian region. The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church; the same edition's article on Turkey counts Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Wallachia among the provinces of European Turkey, so that figure covers them and shows no majority, and Quataert's statement that most Ottoman subjects were Christians until the nineteenth century is not read down to them. Transylvania and the Banat, which the article does not count in Turkey, are drawn with them as present. The Dobrudja, which the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica places south and east of the Danube, is drawn with European Turkey. Present because no source in hand states a majority for these blocks within 10 years of 1800; medium because the sources describe them broadly.¹¹⁴¹²³¹⁴⁷¹⁸⁸¹⁸⁷
1800	Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus in Europe	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey. The same article calls Europe's eastern limits uncertain and proposes a natural limit along the Ufa river to the Belaya, the Kama to the Volga, the Volga to Sarepta, and a short line from there to the Don; the blocks are those of European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus wholly on the European side of that line, by this site's reading. No figure or account in hand for any of the blocks drawn here shows otherwise: the accounts of the Crimea are read for the Crimea block alone, as the Islam layer draws the khanate, by this site's reading. Medium because the statement covers the continent; the blocks the line crosses are drawn as present, those beyond it are not drawn at this step, and the Crimea, for which accounts of the part keep the majority off, has a row of its own.¹⁸⁸
1800	Sri Lanka	Present	Medium	Both	Many of the island's people became Catholics in the Portuguese period and many became Protestants under the Dutch, Neill and Mullins write; after the British brought religious toleration at the end of the eighteenth century, a large majority of those Protestants returned to the Catholic Church. Medium because the source describes the island broadly.⁹⁸
1800	The Crimea	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey. For the Crimea, Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Crim Tartars were for the most part zealous followers of Islam, with many Christians, especially Greeks and Armenians, and a considerable number of Roman Catholics living among them, and Fisher describes the khanate, in the years before Russia annexed it in 1783, as "a Muslim, Tatar society". A place's own account from outside a step's window keeps a larger area's majority off it, for every faith, so these accounts keep the continent's majority off this block, as at 1850; the 1810 statement still places Christians here. Medium because the sources describe broad areas and give no count. The shape is the Crimea block, as the Islam layer draws the khanate.¹⁸⁸⁶⁸¹⁹³
1800	The Ionian Islands	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church; the same edition's article on Turkey counts Zante, Cephalonia, Leucadia, Corfu, and Cerigo among the islands belonging to Turkey, so that figure for European Turkey covers them and shows no majority, and the Christians are drawn as present. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Cephalonia's people, under the archbishop of Corfu, observed the rites of the Greek church, and the eighth edition (1855) gives, from the Weimar Almanac for 1837, 148,017 Orthodox and 35,200 Catholics in the Ionian Islands. Medium because the figure covers European Turkey as a whole.¹⁸⁸¹⁸⁷¹²⁷¹⁹⁴
1800	The Morea and Patras	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church; that figure for European Turkey decides for its blocks, so Quataert's statement that until the nineteenth century most Ottoman subjects were Christians is not read down to the Morea at this step, and the Christians are drawn as present. Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the Ottomans retook the Morea in 1715, that after a Russian occupation in 1770 Ottoman rule was established there again in 1779, and that Tripolitsa, the provincial seat, was a town where Muslims were in the majority; a town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, and with the block drawn as present that majority no longer bears on its level. Hacısalihoğlu, who names Patras also as Balyabadra, counts Balyabadra among the Morea's towns, and GeoNames places Patras in the Western Greece block, so that block is drawn with the Morea. Medium because the figure covers European Turkey as a whole.¹⁸⁸¹²³¹⁴⁵¹⁷¹
1800	The Volga and the Kama (crossed by the limit of Europe)	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and proposes as Europe's eastern limit the Ufa river to the Belaya, the Kama to the Volga, the Volga to Sarepta, and a short line from there to the Don. That line crosses these blocks, by this site's reading, so the statement places Christians in their European parts but is not read as a majority for the whole block; the 1897 census of Russia, which found no majority in Ufa province, also keeps it off the Bashkortostan block and the part of Tatarstan in that province. Medium because the statement covers the continent.¹⁸⁸¹⁹⁵¹⁹⁶¹⁹⁷¹⁹⁸
1800 to 1850	Alaska	Present	Medium	Both	Russian Orthodoxy first came to North America in the eighteenth century, Albanese writes, and grew in Alaska until, at the beginning of the twentieth century, about one-sixth of its people were Orthodox. Medium because the source describes Alaska broadly.¹⁶⁹
1800 to 1850	Beijing	Present	Low	Both	Matteo Ricci reached Beijing in 1601, Neill writes, and he and his Jesuit colleagues maintained their mission, with varying fortunes, through nearly three centuries; Neill and Mullins write that it never completely died out, though by the end of the eighteenth century it was hardly more than a shadow of what it had been. Low because the sources name only Beijing, describe the mission's decline, and differ on how long it lasted (nearly three centuries, or a century and a half). 1700 is drawn with China.⁹⁵⁹⁸
1800 to 1850	Cuba	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 places a bishop's see at Santiago de Cuba, and Simpson writes that almost nine-tenths of Cubans professed Catholicism at the beginning of the twentieth century; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Cuba a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹²⁷¹⁵⁷
1800 to 1850	Latin America	Present	Low	Both	Throughout Latin America, Rooy writes, the Indigenous villages organized in the sixteenth century often became reductions, mission villages set up by the religious orders, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; by 1800 the church held nearly half the land in Mexico, and he writes of Catholic and Protestant missionary strategy in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Scholars differ, he reports, on whether the missions brought an outward imposition of church forms, a blend of religions, or a partial or full conversion. Low because the shape follows today's countries and the source does not say how far into the interior the church reached.¹³⁶
1800 to 1850	Puerto Rico	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 places a bishop's see at San Juan de Puerto Rico, and in 1910, by Pew Research Center's analysis of estimates from the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, 96 percent of people in the Americas as a whole, which contains Puerto Rico, were Christian; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Puerto Rico a century or more apart, Pew's figure for the Americas counting as a record in each place inside them, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹²⁷¹⁹⁹
1800 to 1850	Santo Domingo	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 places an archbishop at Santo Domingo, and in 1910, by Pew Research Center's analysis of estimates from the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, 96 percent of people in the Americas as a whole, which contains Santo Domingo, were Christian; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Santo Domingo a century or more apart, Pew's figure for the Americas counting as a record in each place inside them, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹²⁷¹⁹⁹
1800 to 1850	The Latin West	Prevalent	Medium	Both	For 1800, the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume dated 1810, writes that Christianity was the predominant religion all over Europe except in Turkey, and that even there about one-half of the people were computed to be members of the Greek church. For 1850, the eighth edition, in its volume of 1855 with figures for 1854, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity. The Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save, outside Servia as Moll's geography of 1701 bounds it and in none of the provinces the 1810 article on Turkey lists, are drawn here at both steps; the 1855 edition writes that a large number of Serbians lived in Hungary, in a dialect area reaching into Syrmia and the Banat. Medium because both statements cover the continent and give no figures for its parts; no figure in hand for any part shows otherwise.¹⁸⁸¹⁹⁴¹²⁷¹⁸⁷
1800 to 1850	Upper Canada and Nova Scotia	Present	Medium	Both	New Englanders settled in Nova Scotia in large numbers before and during the American Revolution, and British North America's first notable revival took place there, Albanese writes; at the opening of the nineteenth century a great revival spread through Upper Canada, where itinerant Methodists built a rapidly growing denomination, and in 1845 Catholics in the united Canadas regained denominational schools. Medium because the source describes both areas broadly.¹⁶⁹
1850	Albania and its borderlands, Kosovo, Epirus, and Thrace	Present	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's European part: about 69 percent Christian by this site's arithmetic ("Ortodoks 10.000.000", "Katolik 640.000", "Müslüman 4.550.000"). For these blocks a part's own figure or account, though from outside the step's window, keeps that majority off, as it does for every faith: the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries, and that in its own day probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians were Muslims, in an Albania that took in Prizren and Prishtina, Dibra, Ochrida, Plava, and Iannina; and the 1911 article on the vilayet of Adrianople, which names Adrianople, Kirk-Kilisseh, Chorlu, and Gumuljina among its towns, writes of a preponderance of Muslims among its peasantry, in an article that gives the vilayet's population for 1905. Harakas writes that the Orthodox south of the Danube were governed through the patriarchate of Constantinople for about four hundred years, to the middle of the nineteenth century. GeoNames places the towns named in these blocks. Medium because the sources describe these lands broadly.¹⁴¹¹⁴²¹⁵⁹¹¹⁴¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸¹⁷²¹⁶⁰¹⁶¹¹⁶²¹⁶³
1850	Asiatic Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume of 1860, which writes in the present tense, writes that the Osmanlis of Asia Minor are chiefly intermixed there with Greeks and Armenians, peoples the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica lists as Christian, and that the edict of Gulhane re-established the councils in the provinces, admitting deputies of the Greek and Armenian communities, a statement for the empire's provinces as a whole. It bounds Asiatic Turkey by the Black Sea and Russian territory on the north, the deserts of Arabia on the south, and Persia and Russian Armenia on the east, taking in Asia Minor, the tableland of Armenia and Kurdistan, and the lowlands of the Tigris and Euphrates. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are those lands, by this site's reading, with Ajaria and Artvin for the Batum territory, as the Islam layer reads them, less those with Christian rows of their own (Cilicia, Constantinople, Edessa, Van, historic Armenia, and greater Syria). The article's table, which it ties to the census of 1852, counts 2,360,000 Greeks and Armenians and 640,000 other Christians among the 16,100,000 people of Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, a share for the whole part that this map does not spread over it. Present because none of these words states a majority; medium because the article describes the country broadly.²⁰⁰¹⁸⁶¹⁶⁵
1850	Ceylon	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Ceylon in a volume dated 1854, writes that the island had recently been made an Anglican see, with chaplains at the chief towns, that the Church Mission had its principal stations at Cotta, Baddegamme, Kandy, and Nellore and the American missionaries establishments in the northern province, and that the Wesleyan and Baptist missions were equally active throughout the island. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. Neill and Mullins write that after the British brought religious toleration at the end of the eighteenth century a large majority of the island's Protestants returned to the Catholic Church, and in the census of 1901, Sri Lanka's Department of Census and Statistics reports, 349,200 of the island's 3,566,000 people were Roman Catholics. Medium because the article describes the island broadly.⁷⁴⁹⁸⁷⁸
1850	Cyprus	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on the church of Cyprus writes that the church received its holy oil from Antioch until 1860 and from Constantinople after that, and that an archiepiscopal school at Nicosia, founded in 1812, was raised to the status of a gymnasion (a secondary school) in 1893; the row reads the school, from its founding, and the oil received from Antioch until 1860 as dating the church at this step. Present because no source in hand gives a figure for the island within 10 years of the step; medium because the article describes the church as a whole.¹¹⁶
1850	Edessa (Urfa)	Present	Medium	Both	The New Catholic Encyclopedia's entry on Edessa, modern Urfa, writes that the Mission of the Capuchins opened there in 1841, nine years before this step, and was suppressed during World War I; the row reads the mission, from its opening to its suppression, as carrying this step. Medium because the entry names the city, drawn as the Sanliurfa block, where GeoNames places Urfa.¹¹¹¹¹³
1850	Georgia, Kakhetia, Imeretia, and Guria	Present	Medium	Both	In 1811, Toumanoff writes, the catholicate of Iberia was abolished and the Georgian church became part of the Russian church, ruled through an exarch, its sees reduced to five, until in 1917 the Georgian Orthodox Church declared its independence; Russia had annexed the kingdom of Georgia, united with Kakhetia since 1762, in 1801, Imeretia in 1810, and Guria in 1829. The row reads the church under the exarchate as carrying this step in the lands Russia had annexed by then. Medium because the source describes the church as a whole.⁸⁸
1850	Hindustan	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Hindustan in a volume dated 1856, which takes in Northern Hindustan from Peshawar and Kashmir to Bhutan and Assam, Hindustan Proper with Bengal, the Punjab, Gujarat, and Sind, the Deccan, and India south of the Krishna, writes that with the Hindus and Muslims are intermingled, in very small proportions, British, Armenians, Portuguese, and other Christians; that the Nestorian Christians are numerous in the south of India; and that the East Indians of Calcutta, 4,615 of them there in 1850, follow the Protestant religion. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are those the Hinduism and Islam layers read as the article's Hindustan, less Kerala and Tamil Nadu, which have Christian rows of their own. Present because the words describe a small share; medium because the article describes the country as a whole. GeoNames places Peshawar in the block drawn.¹⁹⁰³⁴
1850	Martaban	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Burmah in a volume dated 1854, which writes that neither Christianity nor Islam had made any progress among the Burmese, writes that the American mission led by Judson was now carrying on its work in the British province of Martaban. A mission at work in a named province places its community there, for every faith; the block is Mon, the nearest block to the town of Martaban, whose GeoNames point lies on the shore just outside Natural Earth's outline, by this site's reading of the province. Medium because the source names the province only.⁷⁰²⁰¹
1850	New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Victoria, and South Australia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In nineteenth-century Australia, Brown writes, the overwhelming majority of the population professed one of the major denominations; settlement began with penal settlements in New South Wales (1788) and Van Diemen's Land, today's Tasmania (1803), by 1850 Presbyterianism was strongly represented in Melbourne, and South Australia ended its state aid to churches in 1851. Missions among Aboriginal peoples had limited success in that century. Medium because the majority figure is for the population as a whole.¹⁹¹
1850	Parts of the Caucasus, Volga, and Urals, and the Kalmyk steppe	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity, with the Urals and the Caucasus as Europe's eastern bounds. In the 1897 census of Russia, by this site's arithmetic, Muslims were 95 percent of Dagestan province and 52 percent of Terek province, and Ufa province had no majority (Muslims just under 50 percent, Christians 46); these blocks lie wholly or partly in those provinces, whose district towns GeoNames places in them, and Ingushetia is this site's reading. A place's own figure from outside a step's window keeps a larger area's majority off it, for every faith, and the row reads a block that lies partly in such a province as the 1900 row does, as present, even where its larger part lay in a province with a Christian majority: Stavropol province, which holds most of the Stavropol block, was about 94 percent Christian by this site's arithmetic, and Kazan province, which holds most of Tatarstan, about 70 percent, while Pyatigorsk, in Terek province, and Menzelinsk, in Ufa province, lie in those blocks. The Kalmyk block is drawn as present too (Decision 143): the census found a Christian majority in Astrakhan province (55 percent), but its district list gives the Kalmyk steppe (128,573 people, with no towns) apart, and the province's figure does not show the steppe's share. For the Adygey, Karachay-Cherkess, and Krasnodar blocks, Bennigsen and Bryan write that during the second jihad of the Naqshbandi order of Sufis (1824 to 1859), a span that contains this step, the work of its missionaries in the central and western Caucasus achieved the Islamization of all the Cherkess and Abazin tribes. That account of the part keeps the continent's majority off these blocks, as the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania does for Albania: Adygea and Karachay-Cherkessia take their names from these peoples, and the Krasnodar block takes in the western Caucasus south of the Kuban river, by this site's reading. Medium because the sources describe broad areas or provinces of other shapes.¹⁹⁴²⁰²²⁰³²⁰⁴¹⁹⁵²⁰⁵²⁰⁶²⁰⁷²⁰⁸¹⁹⁶²⁰⁹²¹⁰⁷⁵⁷⁶²¹¹²¹²²¹³²¹⁴²¹⁵²¹⁶¹⁹⁷¹⁹⁸
1850	Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus in Europe	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855 with figures for 1854, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity, and that the Urals form Europe's north-eastern boundary and the Caucasus is now taken as its south-eastern one. The blocks are those of European Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus within those bounds, by this site's reading, leaving out the Sverdlovsk and Chelyabinsk blocks, which lie mostly east of the Urals. No figure or account in hand for any of the blocks drawn here shows otherwise: the accounts of the Crimea are read for the Crimea block alone, as the Islam layer draws the khanate, by this site's reading, and the 1897 census found a Christian majority in Astrakhan province, which takes in the Astrakhan block. Medium because the statement covers the continent; the provinces where the 1897 census found no Christian majority, the lands of the Cherkess and Abazin peoples, for which an account of the part keeps the majority off, and the Kalmyk steppe, which the census's district list gives apart, though the province's figure includes it, have a row of their own, and so does the Crimea, for which accounts of the part keep the majority off.¹⁹⁴⁷⁵
1850	Sierra Leone and Abeokuta	Present	Medium	Both	The colony of Sierra Leone was founded by opponents of slavery, mostly evangelical Christians, as a Christian settlement, and by 1822, Walls writes, it was becoming a Christian community, one of the missionary movement's few early successes. After Samuel Ajayi Crowther's ordination in 1843, a Church Missionary Society party led by Henry Townsend, Crowther, and C. A. Gollmer went to Abeokuta, among the Yoruba, and in 1851 Crowther presented Abeokuta's cause in London; Sierra Leone's Christians also led the mission along the Niger. Medium because the source names the colony and one town, not how far the church reached around them.²¹⁷²¹⁸²¹⁹
1850	The Crimea	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity, with the Urals and the Caucasus as Europe's eastern bounds. For the Crimea, Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Crim Tartars were for the most part zealous followers of Islam, with many Christians, especially Greeks and Armenians, and a considerable number of Roman Catholics living among them, and Fisher describes the khanate, in the years before Russia annexed it in 1783, as "a Muslim, Tatar society". A place's own account from outside a step's window keeps a larger area's majority off it, for every faith, so these accounts keep the continent's majority off this block, as Bennigsen and Bryan's account of the Cherkess and Abazin tribes does for their lands at this step; the 1855 statement still places Christians here. Medium because the sources describe broad areas and give no count. The shape is the Crimea block, as the Islam layer draws the khanate.¹⁹⁴⁶⁸¹⁹³
1850	The Ionian Islands	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity, and its table from the Weimar Almanac for 1837 lists the Ionian Islands as a state of their own, with 148,017 Orthodox and 35,200 Catholics, a figure for the part that agrees. No source in hand places the islands in European Turkey at this step, since the 1855 table lists them as a state of their own; the fourth edition's article on Turkey (1810) counted them among the islands belonging to Turkey, and at 1800 they are drawn by that edition's figure for European Turkey. Medium because the statement covers the continent.¹⁹⁴¹⁸⁷
1850	The kingdom of Greece	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the Greek state founded in 1829 took in the Morea and Athens and reached from Attica toward Thessaly, and that in 1850 the Ottoman provinces of Yanya, the Aegean islands, Selanik, and Crete lay within today's Greece; Kurt, in the same entry's section on the country, writes that its first core lay south of a line along the gulfs of Volos and Arta, with Euboea and the Cyclades. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity; the fourth edition's figure for European Turkey in 1810, when these lands were Ottoman, covers a larger area, so the 1855 statement is read down to the kingdom. Harakas writes that the patriarchate of Constantinople recognized the independence of the church of Greece in 1833, and Hacısalihoğlu that the church became independent of the patriarchate, which recognized this only in 1850. The blocks are those south of that line, by this site's reading, with the South Aegean block, which holds the kingdom's Cyclades and islands of the Ottoman province of the Aegean islands. Koç's table of the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, in round numbers this site treats as estimates, gives the Aegean islands a population only ("Ege adaları 700.000") and lists them in the empire's European part, which it counts as about 69 percent Christian by this site's arithmetic ("Ortodoks 10.000.000", "Katolik 640.000"); the islands' majority comes from that figure for the whole European part, which counts for the places inside it, not from a figure of their own. Medium because the statement covers the continent.¹¹⁴¹⁸⁸¹⁹⁴¹⁴⁵¹⁴¹
1850	The Ottoman Balkans (the count of 1844)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's European part: 4,550,000 Muslims, 10,000,000 Orthodox, 640,000 Catholics, and 70,000 Jews ("Müslüman 4.550.000", "Ortodoks 10.000.000", "Katolik 640.000", "Mûsevî 70.000"); by this site's arithmetic about 69 percent of the part's 15,500,000 people were Christians. The table lists Thrace, Rumelia, Bulgaria, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Wallachia, Moldavia, Serbia, and the Aegean islands in that part, and Hacısalihoğlu, in the same encyclopedia's entry on Greece, names the Ottoman provinces of Yanya, the Aegean islands, Selanik, and Crete within today's Greece in 1850. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey (1860), whose table it ties to the census of 1852, counts 9,480,000 Greeks, 300,000 Armenians, and 450,000 Catholics and other Christians among European Turkey's 16,200,000 people, and 5,900,000 Muslims, a figure that agrees; that total adds the people of Wallachia and Moldavia, Servia, and Montenegro, and the same article names Candia (Crete) among the nine eyalets of Turkey in Europe. That figure for a larger area counts for the blocks inside it, and no figure in hand for one of these blocks points the other way: the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's figures for Bosnia in 1895, 43 percent Orthodox and 21 percent Catholic, agree. For Crete, the TDV entry on Greece gives about 160,000 Muslims and 129,000 Christians in 1821, and writes that after the Greek revolt and the Egyptian administration the Muslims' number fell quickly, to 60,000 against 200,000 Christians in 1866; the part's figure nearer the step agrees with the larger area's majority, so Crete is drawn with it. Montenegro, which the 1844 table does not name, is drawn from the 1860 article, whose figures by religion are given for that whole total of 16,200,000, the people of Montenegro included; the row reads the article's total with one bound, Montenegro in, for every faith it names, and any part of today's blocks outside Turkey then falls under the eighth edition's statement of 1855 that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity. Serbia is drawn south of the Danube and the Save, Moll's bounds of Servia (1701); the blocks north of them are drawn with the Latin West. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, as bounded on the north and west by the Danube. Koç also gives the male count of 1830 for Rumelia as 811,546 Christian subjects and 3,566 Armenians, 513,448 Muslims, and 11,674 Jews among 1,369,766, a count that places communities but sets no majority. The parts whose own figures or accounts point the other way, Istanbul, and Wallachia and Moldavia have rows of their own. Medium because the figures are estimates for a larger area.¹⁴¹²⁰⁰¹¹⁴¹⁴⁷¹⁸⁹¹⁴⁵¹⁹⁴¹²⁷
1850	the United States	Present	Medium	Both	Albanese describes the nineteenth-century United States as distinctly Protestant, with many denominations, and Catholicism as the largest single denomination from the mid-nineteenth century, as Irish and other immigrants arrived. Most enslaved Africans who became Christians, she writes, joined Protestant churches. Utah is included because the Christianity layer follows Pew Research Center's counting, which includes Latter-day Saints among Christians, so this layer and the Latter-day Saint layer overlap there, as the follower counts will. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.¹⁶⁹¹
1850	Tibet, with Ladak, Balti, and the land south of the Koko-Nor	Present	Low	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Tibet in a volume dated 1860, which gives no year for the passage, writes that there were believed to be about 8,000 Roman Catholics throughout Tibet, and that they and the Muslims of Balti were almost the only exceptions to the universal prevalence of Buddhism; it estimates the country's people at 6,000,000. A count below 5 percent does not place a faith by itself, but a source's own statement that the faith's people lived in the place does, for every faith (Decision 143). The blocks are Tibet as the article describes it, with Ladak in its western part; Pakistan's Northern Areas block for Balti, as the Islam layer reads the same passage; and the Qinghai block, whose part south of the Koko-Nor territory lies within the article's Tibet, since it bounds Tibet on the north by that territory, as the Buddhism layer reads the same article. Low because the article reports a belief, not a count it vouches for, a reason set for this row alone (Decision 143, item 4).⁷²⁷³
1850	Wallachia, Moldavia, Transylvania, and Bessarabia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, lists Wallachia (Eflak) and Moldavia (Boğdan) among the European parts of the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), which gives that part, in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, 4,550,000 Muslims, 10,000,000 Orthodox, 640,000 Catholics, and 70,000 Jews ("Müslüman 4.550.000", "Ortodoks 10.000.000", "Katolik 640.000"), about 69 percent Christian by this site's arithmetic. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that, apart from comparatively few Muslims, Jews, and followers of other religions, the nations of Europe professed Christianity. The fourth edition's figure for European Turkey (1810), about one-half of its people members of the Greek church, takes in Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Wallachia, which its article on Turkey lists among the European provinces, but it is a figure for a larger area from 40 years before the step, and the Ottoman count of 1844, which names Wallachia and Moldavia, is nearer the step and more specific. The 1844 figure is read for Wallachia and Moldavia and the 1855 statement for all of today's Romania and Moldova, and no figure in hand for a part points the other way. Harakas writes that the Romanians have kept much of their Latin heritage within the Greek-Byzantine tradition. Medium because the figures are for larger areas. The Dobrudja is drawn with the Ottoman Balkans.¹⁴¹¹⁹⁴¹⁸⁸¹⁸⁷¹¹⁴
1850 to 1900	New Zealand	Present	High	Both	Anglican missionaries began work among the Maori in 1814, Methodists in 1822, and a Catholic mission in 1838, and by 1845, Brown writes, about half the Maori population was worshiping in Christian congregations; systematic British settlement began in the 1840s, the New Zealand Baptist Union was inaugurated in 1882, and the two Presbyterian bodies reunited in 1901. Historians debate the reasons for the Maori conversions. High because the source dates the churches near both steps.¹⁹¹
1850 to 1900	Van	Present	Medium	Both	Nersoyan writes that the rival catholicate installed in 1113 on the island of Al'thamar, in the province of Van, lasted until its last incumbent died in 1895, without a successor. Kılıç writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the province's yearbook for 1897 to 1898 counts 66,427 non-Muslims among 169,377 adults in the Van sanjak and its districts, and fifteen churches and monasteries in its central district. Medium because the sources describe Armenia broadly, and name Van only through that see and those counts.⁸³¹⁸⁰
1850 to 1900	Vietnam	Present	Low	Both	Neill and Mullins write that Roman Catholic missions had notable success in Vietnam in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and next speak of its Christians in the twentieth century, when many fled from the north to the south after the Marxists took over, and in 1975, when the fall of the South Vietnamese government left them to accept communist rule or again become refugees; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Vietnam a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.⁹⁸
1900	Albania and its borderlands, Kosovo, parts of the Caucasus, Volga, and Urals, and the Kalmyk steppe	Present	Medium	Both	Harakas writes that Albania's people were predominantly Muslim before World War II, with Catholic and Orthodox minorities. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's Albania article (1910) counts about 600,000 Christians among some 1,500,000 to 1,600,000 people, in an Albania that took in Dibra, Ochrida, Iannina, Gusinye, and Plava, towns today in North Macedonia, Greece's Epirus, and Montenegro; its Turkey article lists Orthodox Serbs and Bulgarians and Muslim, Orthodox, and Catholic Albanians in the province of Kossovo, without figures by religion. Aruçi, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives Kančov's count toward 1900 of 8,000 Bulgarians and Macedonians, 300 Albanian and 460 Vlach Christians, and 5,000 Turks and 500 Albanian Muslims in the town of Ohrid; a town's figure decides for its block only where the town makes up the block, so the Ohrid block is drawn with the article's Albania. In the 1897 census of Russia, by this site's arithmetic, Muslims were 95 percent of Dagestan province and 52 percent of Terek province, and Ufa province had no majority (Muslims just under 50 percent, Christians 46); their district towns lie in today's Dagestan, North Ossetia, Chechnya, Kabardino-Balkaria, Stavropol, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, and Chelyabinsk, and Ingushetia is this site's reading. Each block lies wholly or partly in such a province or in that Albania, so it is drawn as present, even where its larger part had a Christian majority, as Kazan province (70 percent) did in Tatarstan and Stavropol province (94) in Stavropol. The Kalmyk block is drawn as present too (Decision 143): Astrakhan province had a Christian majority (55 percent), but the census's district list gives the Kalmyk steppe (128,573 people, with no towns) apart, and the province's figure does not show the steppe's share. Medium because the sources describe broad areas or provinces of other shapes.¹¹⁴¹⁴²¹⁸⁶²²⁰¹⁵²²⁰³²⁰⁴¹⁹⁵²⁰⁵²⁰⁶²⁰⁷²⁰⁸¹⁹⁶²⁰⁹²¹⁰⁷⁵⁷⁶²¹¹²¹²²¹³²¹⁴²¹⁵²¹⁶¹⁹⁷¹⁹⁸²²¹²²²¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁷¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹¹⁷²
1900	Asia Minor, Armenia, and Kurdistan	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey gives, for 1896, 1,144,000 Armenians and 1,818,000 other Christians, beside 10,030,000 Muslims, in a population of 13,241,000 in Armenia, Kurdistan, and Asia Minor, or 22.4 percent Christian by this site's arithmetic. The blocks are those the Islam layer draws from the same figure, apart from Adana, Van, and the blocks of historic Armenia, which have their own Christian rows. Medium because the figure is for a region larger than any one block.¹⁸⁶
1900	Australia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	During the nineteenth century, Brown writes, settlers spread from New South Wales and Tasmania to Western and South Australia, Victoria, and Queensland, and by 1900 all the major denominations were represented; the overwhelming majority of the population professed one of them, while missions among Aboriginal peoples had limited success. Medium because the majority figure is for the population as a whole.¹⁹¹
1900	Buganda	Present	Low	Both	Neill names the great persecution of Christians in Buganda in the 1880s among the persecutions the church has met through the centuries. Low because the source mentions Buganda once, 11 to 20 years before this step, and the gazetteer's point for Buganda (Uganda's Central Region, which GeoNames also calls Buganda Province) falls in this one block, while the kingdom covered more.⁹⁵²²³
1900	Canada	Prevalent	Medium	Both	At the beginning of the twentieth century, Albanese writes, 90 percent of Canadians belonged to six major Christian groups, the largest of them the Catholic Church. Medium because the figure is for the population as a whole.¹⁶⁹
1900	China	Present	Medium	Both	After the Opium Wars of 1840 to 1842, Neill and Mullins write, Catholic and Protestant missionaries gradually settled in all the provinces of China as far as the borders of Tibet, and the church grew slowly through individuals and families. The shape follows today's provinces outside Tibet. Medium because the source describes the area broadly.⁹⁸
1900	Cuba	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Almost nine-tenths of Cubans professed Catholicism at the beginning of the twentieth century, Simpson writes, though the church had never been as influential in Cuban national life as in other Latin American countries. Medium because the figure is for the population as a whole.¹⁵⁷
1900	Cyprus	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Cyprus, in a passage that gives the island's population in the census of 1901 as 237,022, writes that the people were mainly Greeks and Turks, that about 22 percent were Muslims, and that nearly all the rest were Christians of the Orthodox Greek Church; its article on the church of Cyprus names the four surviving sees, Nicosia, Paphos, Kition, and Kyrenia. Medium because the figure is for the island as a whole.⁹¹¹¹⁶
1900	Europe and Russia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1910, by Pew Research Center's analysis of estimates from the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, 95 percent of people in Europe as a whole were Christian, and Pew counts Russia in Europe; Neill writes that by the end of the nineteenth century the Orthodox faith had reached the shores of the Pacific, and in 1895, the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica reports, 43 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina's people were Orthodox Christians and 21 percent Catholics. By this site's arithmetic, the 1897 census of Russia found Christian majorities in the provinces of Kazan (70 percent; its districts included Cheboksary and Tsarevokokshaysk, today in Chuvashia and Mari El), Kuban (95; including Batalpashinsk, today's Cherkessk), Transbaikal (72, with Buddhists at 26; including Verkhneudinsk, today's Ulan-Ude), Irkutsk (85), and Astrakhan (55, with Buddhists at 14). Astrakhan's districts included the Kalmyk steppe and the Inner Kirghiz Horde, one of the hordes of steppe nomads who, the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica writes, call themselves Kazaks; the provincial figure hides the shares of each, so the Kalmyk block, for the Kalmyk steppe, which the census lists apart, is drawn as present in a row of its own (Decision 143). Medium because the figures are for whole continents and provinces, not for each block.¹⁹⁹⁹⁵¹¹⁴¹⁸⁹²⁰⁵²²⁴⁷⁹²²⁵⁷⁵²⁰⁹²²⁶⁸⁰⁷⁶²²⁷²²⁸²²⁹²³⁰⁸¹
1900	Georgia	Present	Medium	Both	Toumanoff writes that the Georgian church was ruled through an exarch as part of the Russian church from 1811 until 1917, and that Russia annexed Suania in 1858 and Abkhazia in 1864, that the Prince of Mingrelia abdicated in favor of the Russian emperor in 1867, and that Russia acquired Meschia from the Turks in 1878, in addition to the kingdom of Georgia and Kakhetia (1801), Imeretia (1810), and Guria (1829). The row reads the church under the exarchate as carrying this step in all these lands. Toumanoff does not date Ajaria's annexation; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey writes that under the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 Kars, Ardahan, and Batum became Russian, and the row reads Ajaria as the Batum territory, as the Islam layer and this layer's gap entry for Artvin read that statement. Medium because the sources describe the church and the territory broadly.⁸⁸¹⁸⁶
1900	Goa	Present	Low	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan, in a volume dated 1856, which lists Portuguese Goa among the territories it counts, writes that British, Armenians, Portuguese, and other Christians were intermingled, in very small proportions, with the Hindus and Muslims, and Neill and Mullins write that in the early 1980s Christians numbered less than three percent of the population in India; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Goa a century or more apart, the 1856 article's statement about Hindustan and Neill and Mullins's figure for India as a whole, which contains Goa, each counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.¹⁹⁰⁹⁸
1900	India	Present	Low	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, the Indian Empire, Burma included, had 2,923,241 Christians; it names Madras, where they were numerous in Madras city and three Districts of the Telugu country, Bengal (278,000, about half the natives in Ranchi District of Chota Nagpur), Bombay (220,000, with chief missions in Thana, North Kanara, Kaira, and Ahmadnagar), the United Provinces (103,000), the Punjab (72,000), Mysore (50,000), and Assam (36,000) as the provinces and tracts that hold them. Neill and Mullins write that from 1858, when the British government took over rule in India from the East India Company, the work of Christians of many nations spread in fifty years into almost every corner of India except where independent Indian rulers refused permission for Christian missions. The blocks are today's units that most nearly match those provinces, Pakistan's Punjab and Bangladesh among them, by this site's reading; the blocks of 1901 lying mostly in other princely states (Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Telangana, Jammu and Kashmir, Manipur, and Tripura) are left out, since neither source places Christians there, and so is Sind, since the Gazetteer does not say its figure for Bombay includes it. Low because the blocks match the provinces only approximately, and for Madras, Bengal, and Bombay the Gazetteer names the few districts where the Christians were numerous or the chief missions lay; Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Goa have rows or gap entries of their own.²³¹⁹⁸
1900	Korea	Present	Medium	Both	Korea stayed closed to foreign influences until the second half of the nineteenth century, Neill and Mullins write, and the Christian missionaries of that period were mostly Americans, notably Methodists and Presbyterians. Medium because the source describes the country broadly.⁹⁸
1900	Lake Urmia	Present	Medium	Both	By the nineteenth century, the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes, the Church of the East was much reduced, and its chief center was around Lake Urmia in the mountains of northwestern Persia, where its people were visited by English and American Protestant missionaries in the 1830s and 1840s and by Russian missionaries toward the close of the century. Medium because the source names one center, not the church's full extent; 1700 to 1850 are drawn with Persia.¹⁰¹²³²
1900	Onitsha and the Niger Delta	Present	Medium	Both	In 1857 J. C. Taylor, a Sierra Leonean clergyman, opened a mission at Onitsha, in Igboland, Walls writes, and in 1864 Samuel Ajayi Crowther was consecrated a bishop for the countries of West Africa beyond British rule. The mission's Niger Delta section, under his son, grew rapidly. Medium because the source describes the Delta broadly.²¹⁷²³³
1900	Persia	Present	Low	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Persia, in a volume dated 1859, names the Armenians among those who paid a capitation tax and counts Nestorians among the people of Urumiyah, and Pacini writes that at the beginning of the twenty-first century 150,000 of the Middle East's Christians lived in Iran, in communities whose origins, he writes, go back further than the rise of Islam; no source in hand records the community's end between. The row reads two mentions of Christians in Persia a century or more apart, Pacini's figure for Iran as a whole counting as a record in each place inside it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Lake Urmia has a row of its own at this step.¹⁸⁵¹⁰⁷
1900	Sierra Leone	Present	Medium	Both	The colony of Sierra Leone, Walls writes, was founded as a Christian settlement, and by 1822 it was becoming a Christian community; Samuel Ajayi Crowther's Niger mission had staff from Sierra Leone until European missionaries took it over, brushing aside the old bishop, then over eighty, and suspending or dismissing his staff, before his death in 1891. Medium because the source names the colony as a whole and dates its Christians near this step only through that mission.²¹⁷
1900	Sri Lanka	Present	Medium	Both	In the census of 1901, Sri Lanka's Department of Census and Statistics reports, 349,200 of the island's 3,566,000 people were Roman Catholics (Table 2.13), and Neill and Mullins trace the island's Catholics and Protestants to the Portuguese and Dutch periods. Medium because the figure is for the island as a whole, and the building block is today's whole country.⁷⁸⁹⁸
1900	the Americas	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1910, by Pew Research Center's analysis of estimates from the Center for the Study of Global Christianity, 96 percent of people in the Americas as a whole were Christian; Rooy writes that most people in British Guiana and Surinam became Christian, except the Hindus, and that most in British Honduras and French Guiana were Catholic, and Albanese that about one-sixth of Alaska's people were Orthodox at the beginning of the twentieth century, a figure for one church only, which does not show whether Christians as a whole were a majority there, so the figure for the Americas decides. Utah is included because the Christianity layer follows Pew Research Center's counting, which includes Latter-day Saints among Christians, so this layer and the Latter-day Saint layer overlap there, as the follower counts will. Medium because the figure is for the Americas as a whole, not for each country.¹⁹⁹¹¹³⁶¹⁶⁹
1900	The Irrawaddy delta	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Burma contained 147,000 Christians, all but 18,000 of them natives, considerably more than half of these Baptists, and the majority of them in the Irrawaddy delta; Neill and Mullins write of missions among the Karens and other peoples. Medium because the Gazetteer places the majority only in the delta, drawn as the Ayeyarwady block.²³¹⁹⁸
1900	the Philippines	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Neill and Mullins write that the Spaniards arrived in what the entry prints as 1538 and remained in power for three and a half centuries, in the course of which almost the entire population was brought within the Roman Catholic church, though a Muslim minority remained in the southern islands, and that Spanish rule ended when sovereignty passed to the Americans with their victory in the war with Spain, which the entry dates, as printed, 1889 to 1902. The row reads that span's end, a range that includes this step, as the year of the majority; the entry adds that Roman Catholics constituted the majority of the people. Medium because the source describes the islands broadly and dates the majority only by the end of Spanish rule.⁹⁸
1900	The provinces of Baku and Elisavetpol	Present	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Elisavetpol province counted 323,556 Christians of every confession, 298,685 of them Armenian-Gregorian, among 878,415 people, and Baku province 137,703, among them 56,090 Orthodox and 52,563 Armenian-Gregorian, among 826,716: about 37 and 17 percent, by this site's arithmetic. No source in hand places today's district blocks of Azerbaijan in those provinces, so the blocks are drawn from both provinces together, as the Islam layer reads the same tables; a province's count covers every block in it. The Nakhchivan blocks are drawn with historic Armenia. Medium because the provinces of 1897 are not the shape of today's blocks.²³⁴²³⁵
1900	The vilayet of Basra	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Basra writes that there were about 4,000 Jews and perhaps 6,000 Christians in the vilayet, among whom it reckons the remains of the Sabaeans or Mandaeans, beside a population it estimates at about 200,000, almost all Muslims. A count below 5 percent does not place a faith by itself, but a source's own statement that the faith's people lived in the place does, for every faith (Decision 143). The blocks are those where GeoNames places the towns the article names, Basra, Amara, and Shatra; the sanjak it places on the western shore of the Persian Gulf is not placed on today's blocks. Low because the article gives the number as a guess and counts the Mandaeans among the Christians.²³⁶²³⁷²³⁸²³⁹
1900	The vilayets of Bagdad and Mosul	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, lists the Chaldaeans or Nestorians, as Nestorian Christians, among the peoples of the vilayets of Bagdad and Mosul, and the Jacobite Syrians and Armenians among those of Mosul. Its article on Mosul counts 30,000 Christians among the vilayet's 295,000 people and 7,000 among the town's 40,000, and names the Chaldaeans as the town's most important Christian community; its article on Bagdad writes that upwards of 6,000 Christians, chiefly Chaldaeans or Nestorians, lived in a quarter of the city. The blocks are today's Iraq outside the vilayet of Basra (the Basra, Maysan, and Dhi-Qar blocks, where GeoNames places its towns of Basra, Amara, and Shatra), read as the vilayets of Bagdad and Mosul by this site's reading. Medium because the articles describe the vilayets broadly. GeoNames places Mosul in the Ninawa block and Baghdad in the Baghdad block.¹⁸⁶²⁴⁰²⁴¹²³⁶¹⁶⁵²⁴²²³⁷²³⁸²³⁹
1900	Thrace (the vilayet of Adrianople)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, beside its estimate for the whole empire in 1910, writes that about two-thirds of the people of the European provinces were Christian. Its article on the vilayet of Adrianople, bounded by Bulgaria, the Black Sea, the vilayet of Constantinople, the Sea of Marmara, the Aegean, and Macedonia, names Adrianople as its capital and Kirk-Kilisseh, Chorlu, and Gumuljina among its principal towns, towns today in these four blocks, and writes of a preponderance of Muslims among its peasantry. In 1905, its article on the city says, half of Adrianople's people were Turks and half Jews, Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, and others, and the city was the see of a Greek archbishop and of Armenian and Bulgarian bishops. Because the vilayet article points to a Muslim preponderance among the peasantry and gives no figure, the European figure is not read down to these blocks, and they are drawn as present. Medium because neither article gives the vilayet's shares by religion.¹⁸⁶¹⁵⁹²⁴³¹⁶⁰¹⁶¹¹⁶²¹⁶³

Hinduism

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
2000 BCE	The Sarasvati region	Present	Medium	Tradition's account	The yuga reckoning, which Witzel ties to the Puranas, places the Vedas before the Kali Yuga, which began in 3102 BCE. The Hindu timeline in Dancing with Siva gives 3102 BCE as the beginning of the Kali Yuga in Hindu time reckoning, and dates to 1900 BCE the drying of the Sarasvati, which it calls the end of the Vedic age. The Rig Veda's hymn in praise of rivers (10.75.5) names the Sarasvati with the Ganga, the Yamuna, and the Sutudri, which Griffith's translation identifies as the Sutlej; Danino writes that the hymn lists the Sarasvati between the Yamuna and the Sutlej, and reports the river's identification with the dry bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra in these regions. The building blocks take in all of Rajasthan, though the river bed runs through its north.²⁴⁴²⁴⁵²⁴⁶²⁴⁷²⁴⁸
1500 BCE to 1000 BCE	The northwestern subcontinent	Present	Medium	Both	The yuga reckoning places the Vedas before 3102 BCE. Witzel dates them to roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, composed by Indo-Aryan speakers newly arrived in the northwestern subcontinent, and finds the major roots of Hinduism in the Veda. Danino argues that Vedic culture was native to the subcontinent and older, and objects that critics present the Sarasvati identification as a recent theory of Hindutva (the "Hinduness" movement, active since the 1920s, in Witzel's description), when a French geographer first proposed it in 1855 and European Indologists soon endorsed it. The Hindu timeline in Dancing with Siva reports the view of David Frawley and many Indian scholars that the people of the Indus-Sarasvati valleys and those of the Rig Veda were the same, describes that civilization as spreading from Pakistan to Gujarat, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh by 2600 BCE, and has the center of civilization move from the Sarasvati to the Ganga after about 1900 BCE. One shape is drawn, in the northwest, where Witzel places the Vedas and Danino the dry bed of the Sarasvati; the wider extent the timeline gives for the Indus-Sarasvati civilization is named here, not drawn, because the map draws each account where its own sources place the Vedas, and the timeline's wider extent describes the civilization as a whole. Medium because "the northwestern subcontinent" is broad.²⁴⁵²⁴⁴²⁴⁹²⁴⁸²⁴⁶
500 BCE	The northwest and the Ganges basin	Present	Medium	Both	Witzel dates the Vedas to roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, composed in the northwestern subcontinent and later concentrated in the Kuru realm, and writes that the theory of karma developed in the eastern region of North India, newly brought into Vedic culture. Hiltebeitel writes that the Upanishads record the Vedic tradition's further settlement east, into the Ganges Basin, and Dandekar traces the worship of Vasudeva to the time of Panini, whom he dates to the sixth to fifth centuries BCE. Medium because the sources describe these areas broadly; the northwestern building blocks follow the rows before this one.²⁴⁵²⁵⁰²⁵¹
250 BCE	The northwest	Present	Low	Both	Witzel dates the Veda to roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, composed by Indo-Aryan speakers newly arrived in the northwestern subcontinent, and Narayanan writes that archaeological evidence from the second century BCE suggests that Vasudeva was worshiped in north-western India. The row reads two mentions of Hindu worship in the northwest a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and because both sources describe the region broadly.²⁴⁵²⁵²
250 BCE to 500 CE	The Ganges plain	Present	Medium	Both	Hiltebeitel describes this formative period as running from rival kingdoms on the Ganges Plain to the Mauryas (about 324 to 184 BCE) and on to the Guptas (about 320 to 467 CE), with Hinduism's self-definitions forged throughout. Dandekar holds that Megasthenes (4th century BCE) was describing the worship of Vasudeva in the Mathura region, dates a Mathura sculpture of Samkarshana to the 2nd century BCE, and writes that most of the Gupta kings, who in his dating reigned from the fourth to the seventh century CE, were devout Vaishnavas. Medium because "the Ganges Plain" is broad. The northwestern blocks are drawn at 1 CE in a row of their own, and at 250 BCE and from 250 CE to 750 CE, at low confidence, in rows that read mentions of Hindu worship there a century or more apart as carrying the steps between.²⁵⁰²⁵¹²⁴⁶
250 BCE to 1000 CE	Delhi	Present	Low	Both	At 500 BCE the Delhi block is drawn with the northwest, where Witzel places the composition of the Veda, and the Ganges basin, where Hiltebeitel places the Vedic tradition's further settlement east. Dandekar writes that northern and central India saw a truly exuberant branching of Vaishnava devotion from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, drawn for the Delhi block from 1250. The row reads these two mentions of Hindu worship, each for a larger area that contains the Delhi block, more than a century apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, and because the sources describe the regions broadly.²⁴⁵²⁵⁰²⁵¹
1 CE	North-western and central India	Present	Low	Both	Narayanan writes that archaeological evidence from the second century BCE suggests that Vasudeva was worshiped in both north-western and central India; Dandekar reports that, by the Besnagar inscription (last quarter of the second century BCE), a column to Vasudeva was erected by Heliodoros, a Bhagavata of Taksasila, and that the inscriptions of Ghosundi and Nanaghat, both of the first century BCE, associate Vasudeva with Samkarshana; and Hiltebeitel writes that inscriptions and literary sources from the third to first century BCE show sanctuaries for Vasudeva and Keshava. Drawn at 1 CE, the step that closes the first century BCE; low because the sources do not place the first-century inscriptions, and the places drawn rest on Narayanan's broad naming of north-western and central India, from evidence a century older than the step.²⁵²²⁵¹²⁵⁰
250 CE to 500 CE	The Tamil country	Present	Medium	Both	Carman writes that the earliest devotional poetry is considered to be that in praise of the Tamil god Murukan, beginning about 200 CE, followed by Tamil hymns to Shiva and Vishnu between the fifth and ninth centuries. Witzel writes that South India had only just been Hinduized when the Alvars' poetry appeared in the eighth century, largely replacing the older Dravidian religion, so the sources differ on when the region's religion is best called Hindu. Medium for that reason.²⁵³²⁴⁵
250 CE to 750 CE	Central India	Present	Low	Both	Narayanan writes that archaeological evidence from the second century BCE suggests that Vasudeva was worshiped in central India. Sanderson reports a copper-plate decree issued in 376 from Bagh, in Madhya Pradesh, recording a grant to support the worship of the Mothers in a temple of those goddesses established by a Pashupata teacher, and a fragmentary inscription of the late tenth century from Kadwaha, in the Guna District of Madhya Pradesh, about the Shaiva ascetic Dharmashiva, abbot of the Aranipadra monastery. The row reads these mentions of Hindu worship in central India, each a century or more from the next, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.²⁵²⁵²
250 CE to 750 CE	The northwest	Present	Low	Both	Narayanan writes that archaeological evidence from the second century BCE suggests that Vasudeva was worshiped in north-western India, and the Imperial Gazetteer writes that Thanesar, the most sacred place in the holy land of Kurukshetra, continued to be a place of great sanctity until Mahmud of Ghazni sacked it in 1014; Hiltebeitel dates Mahmud's raids into Northwest India to 977 to 1030. Between them, the Himalayan Academy's timeline has Hindu ancestors of the Romani people leaving Rajasthan, Sindh, and other areas of India about 430. The row reads two mentions of Hindu worship in the northwest a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Thanesar in the Haryana block.²⁵²²⁵⁴²⁵⁰²⁴⁶²⁵⁵
500 CE	Cambodia	Present	High	Both	By the fifth century CE, Narayanan writes, Vishnu was worshiped in Cambodia.²⁵²
500 CE	Karnataka	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson writes, in a note on the temples founded by rulers and other notables, that in Karnataka Shaiva foundations greatly outnumbered others throughout the period from the fifth to the fourteenth centuries, a span that contains this step; the Deccan row carries the block from 750 CE. Medium because the source describes the region as a whole and names no place within it.⁵²
500 CE	West Java (Tarumanagara)	Present	Low	Both	Rema, Sudiana, and Suarka write that Hindu remains from the early historical period of Indonesia are found in West Java, in inscriptions issued in the time of the Tarumanagara kingdom, which they date to about the fifth century; the row reads that century as reaching 500 CE, the only date they give. Low because the date is given only by century and as presumed, and the source names West Java broadly.²⁵⁶
500 CE to 750 CE	Kerala (the Nambudiri Brahmans)	Present	Low	Both	Mencher writes that the majority of modern historians hold that the Nambudiri Brahmans came to Kerala between the first and fourth centuries CE, though some, such as E. K. Pillai, believe they came later; that the Nambudiris have traditionally lived on the southwest coast, in what is now Kerala; and that the heyday of their system was between the twelfth and the seventeenth centuries. The row reads the majority's dating and that continuing presence as carrying 500 CE and 750 CE; the range is not read for 250 CE, which lies inside it. The Keralolpatty, a traditional account of Kerala set down in the eighteenth century, tells that the sage-warrior Parashurama brought the Brahmans to the coast and settled them in thirty-two communities, each with its own temple, without a date. Low because historians differ on the date and the source describes Kerala broadly.²⁵⁷
500 CE to 750 CE	Orissa	Present	Low	Both	Sanderson names the Nalas of western Orissa, whom he dates from after about 450 to 700, among the early Vaishnava kings, and Dharmaraja of Padmakholi, in the Ganjam District of Orissa, among the kings of the sixth century declared in inscriptions to be devotees of the Sun; Narayanan writes that Puri, in Orissa, has been one of the most important pilgrimage centers for at least the last millennium. The row reads the Nalas' span as carrying 500 CE, and the Nalas and Puri, two mentions of Hindu worship in Orissa a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying 750 CE. Low because the earlier evidence is the devotion of kings alone and the sources describe Orissa broadly.⁵²²⁵²
500 CE to 1250	Champa	Present	High	Both	UNESCO writes that from the 4th to the 13th centuries CE a culture on the coast of Vietnam owed its spiritual origins to Hinduism, with many temples to Krishna and Vishnu but above all Shiva; that My Son was the religious and political capital of the Champa kingdom for most of its existence; and that Shaiva Hinduism remained the state religion as Mahayana Buddhism took hold in the kingdom's north. Narayanan writes that some early inscriptions at My Son may date to the 3rd century. The row takes only Quang Nam, the province that holds My Son, though Champa reached further along the coast.⁵¹²⁵⁸
500 CE to 1250	Kashmir	Present	Medium	Both	Dandekar reports that a Vaishnava scripture, the Ahirbudhnya Samhita, is believed to have been composed in Kashmir in the early fifth century, and Sanderson reports a popular belief, recorded by the twelfth-century Kashmiri historian Kalhana, that the Hephthalite Mihirakula, who ruled Kashmir in the early sixth century, settled people from Aryadesa there to promote the brahmanical social order, and, from the same historian, that the temples the Karkota kings (about 625 to 855 or 856) founded in their names were temples of Vishnu. Hiltebeitel dates the Kashmir Shaiva, or Trika, school to the ninth century; Sanderson names the Kashmiri Shakta Shaivas from Utpaladeva (active about 925 to 975) to Kshemaraja (active about 1000 to 1050), and a Shaiva rite for Shivaratri current in Kashmir, as the thirteenth-century Haracaritacintamani of Jayadratha shows. Sanderson, by contrast, calls the Ahirbudhnya Samhita a work composed in the South that draws on the Kashmiri Shaiva works of Utpaladeva to Kshemaraja (about 925 to 1050). Medium because the earliest date rests on Kalhana, whom Sanderson calls highly unreliable for the centuries before the Karkotas; the row stops at 1250, since Witzel's next example, the Kashmiri Jonaraja of the early fifteenth century, falls more than 30 years from 1500; later steps are drawn in rows of their own.²⁵¹⁵²²⁵⁰²⁴⁵
500 CE to 1600	Sind	Present	Low	Both	The Himalayan Academy's timeline has Hindu ancestors of the Romani people leaving Rajasthan, Sindh, and other areas of India about 430, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of the people of the Mughal empire, which by this site's reading took in Sind, followed religions other than Islam and Christianity, which Moll's of 1701 names as the religion of the Hindus (the row for the Mughal lands at 1700). The row reads two mentions of Hindus in Sind a century or more apart, the later one for the empire that contains it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, and because the earlier mention is a single timeline entry about people who left. Sind is drawn from 1700 in rows of their own.²⁴⁶⁶⁸¹²⁷
500 CE to 1800	The Kathmandu valley	Present	High	Both	Sanderson writes that through the early medieval period the inscriptions of the Kathmandu valley's kings show their devotion to Shiva (the dated Licchavi inscriptions he cites begin in 459 CE and the year 464 to 465 CE), and that Buddhism and Shaivism have coexisted among the Newars down to the present. Lodrick dates the Malla kings to the 13th to 18th centuries; Witzel writes that Nepal's records speak of the Malla kings restoring the thirty-six castes around 1390 CE, and that manuscript colophons show Krishna worship spreading in Nepal around 1550 or 1600.⁵²⁵³²⁴⁵²⁵⁹
750 CE	Benares	Present	Low	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer writes that in the seventh century Hiuen Tsiang found the kingdom of Benares inhabited mostly by Hindus, and the city with twenty Hindu temples and a gigantic copper image of Siva; Sanderson reports a pedestal inscription of 1026 at Sarnath which records that the Pala king Mahipala I had two princes build hundreds of temples of Siva and other deities in Benares. The row reads two mentions of Hindu worship in Benares a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Benares (Varanasi) in the Uttar Pradesh block.²⁶⁰⁵²²⁶¹
750 CE	Valabhi	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson writes that three quarters of the land grants of the Maitraka kings of Valabhi went to brahmins, the rest to Buddhist institutions; that an inscription of the year 766 to 767 calls every king it lists entirely devoted to Siva; and that the Maitraka Kharagraha II Dharmaditya was among the seventh-century kings commended for establishing the order of classes and stages of life. Medium because one royal city stands for the Gujarat block; Gujarat is drawn at 1000 CE and 1250, at low confidence, in a row of its own.⁵²²⁶²
750 CE to 1000 CE	Bihar (Gaya)	Present	Low	Both	Hiltebeitel traces Hinduism's formative period from rival kingdoms on the Ganges Plain to the Mauryas and on to the Guptas (about 320 to 467 CE), and Dandekar writes that most of the Gupta kings, who in his dating reigned from the fourth to the seventh century CE, were devout Vaishnavas. Sanderson writes that an inscription detailing the temple building of the Pala king Nayapala (reigned about 1027 to 1043) names a lofty temple of Siva Matangeshvara at Dharmaranya, which he places at Gaya in southern Bihar; damage has removed the king's name, but Sanderson thinks it extremely unlikely that he was anyone else. The row reads 1000 CE from the nearer end of that reign, 27 years after the step, and the Gupta evidence and the temple at Gaya, two mentions of Hindu worship in the Ganges plain a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying 750 CE. Low because the inscription's king is inferred and the Gupta evidence describes the plain broadly. GeoNames places Gaya in the Bihar block.²⁵⁰²⁵¹⁵²²⁶³
750 CE to 1250	Cambodia	Present	High	Both	Narayanan writes that Hari-Hara, a joined form of Vishnu and Shiva, became popular in Cambodia after the seventh century, that Suryavarman II (reigned 1131 to about 1150) built Angkor Wat for Vishnu, and that explicit Hindu practice died out by about the fifteenth century as Theravada Buddhism spread. Sanderson writes that Shaivism was the dominant religion among the Khmers until the rise of Theravada that accompanied Angkor's decline; he writes of royal patronage, so the row is drawn as present.²⁵⁸²⁵²⁵²
750 CE to 1600	Bengal	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson reports temples to goddesses of Shiva's circle and a Shaiva royal preceptor under the Pala kings of Gauda (about 750 to 1199), though the Palas were above all patrons of Buddhism, and names their successors, the Sena kings of Gauda, among them Vijayasena (about 1096 to 1159) and, as royal devotees of the Sun in the late twelfth and early thirteenth centuries, Lakshmanasena (about 1179 to 1206), who also appears as a devotee of Vishnu, and Vishvarupasena. Hiltebeitel names the Bengali poet Jayadeva (12th century); O'Connell writes that Chaitanya was born in Bengal in 1486 and that by the time of British India's census reports most middle-caste Bengali Hindus identified as Vaishnavas of his tradition. Medium because "Bengal" is broad; 500 CE is not drawn, since the earliest Bengali king Sanderson names, Gopacandra of Vanga, is dated only to the sixth century, and the steps from 1700 are drawn in rows of their own.²⁵⁰⁵²²⁶⁴
750 CE to 1700	The Deccan	Present	Medium	Both	Narayanan writes that under the Chalukyas of the Deccan, after the sixth century, royal patronage and temple building fed Vaishnava devotion, and Lorenzen describes Shaiva groups important in southern India, and in the Karnataka region, from about the seventh to the fourteenth century. Dandekar names Jnaneshvara (13th century) and Tukaram (17th century) in Maharashtra and Purandaradasa (15th century) in Karnataka, Carman the Virashaiva poets of Karnataka (12th to 14th centuries), and Hiltebeitel the Vijayanagar kings and their successors in the south (1333 to the eighteenth century) and the Marathas in Maharashtra and the south (late sixteenth century to 1761). Medium because, at these steps, the row's sources place Andhra and Telangana only within "the Deccan" and "South India" (Hiltebeitel names "the Andhra area of the South" for early Tantrism, in the fourth to sixth centuries, before this row begins). At 1700 Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of the inland parts of the peninsula within the Ganges followed religions other than Islam and Christianity, which Moll's of 1701 names as the religion of the Hindus, while it calls the peninsula's people generally Muslims, especially near the coasts; the two clauses cannot both set a majority, so Telangana, wholly inland, is present for Hindus and for Muslims alike, neither a majority there. 1800 and 1850 are drawn in the row for India at those steps.²⁵²²⁶⁵²⁵³²⁵¹²⁵⁰⁶⁸¹²⁷
750 CE to 1700	The Tamil country	Present	High	Both	Lorenzen places the Tamil Shaiva poet-saints, the Nayanars, in the Cauvery River basin from the seventh to the tenth centuries, and Witzel dates the Alvars' poetry to the eighth century. UNESCO writes that the Brihadisvara temple at Thanjavur was consecrated in 1009 to 1010 CE and that worship established there over a thousand years ago continues daily; Hiltebeitel describes the rule of the Vijayanagar kings and their successors in the south from 1333 to the eighteenth century, and Koppedrayer writes that four Shaiva monasteries in the Thanjavur district have unbroken histories since the mid-sixteenth century. The steps from 1800 are drawn in rows of their own.²⁶⁵²⁴⁵²⁶⁶²⁵⁰²⁶⁷
1000 CE	Benares	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson reports a pedestal inscription of 1026 at Sarnath which records that the Pala king Mahipala I had two princes build hundreds of temples of Siva, Citraghanta, and other deities in Benares, after offering obeisance to a guru of that city. Medium because the inscription dates from 1026, after this step, and one city stands for the Uttar Pradesh block.⁵²²⁶¹
1000 CE	Central Java	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO's page on Prambanan, on the border of Yogyakarta and Central Java, says the compound was built in the 10th century in its short description; its synthesis says the temples were built in the 8th century and dates the Hindu temple, Loro Jonggrang, to the 9th, and its statement of criterion (iv) calls the complex characteristic of Siva expression of the 10th century; it adds that the temples collapsed in the early 11th century. Narayanan writes that Hindu dynasties flourished in central Java, and that Islam became a dominant presence in Indonesia after the fourteenth or fifteenth century. Medium because "central Java" is broad; later steps in central Java are not drawn for want of a source that places Hindu traditions there.²⁶⁸²⁵⁸
1000 CE	Kadwaha (Guna District)	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson reports a fragmentary inscription of the late tenth century from Kadwaha, in the Guna District of Madhya Pradesh, which relates that when hostile forces invaded the region and the king was slain, the Shaiva ascetic Dharmashiva, abbot of the Aranipadra monastery, went into battle and routed the enemy, at the cost of his own life; the row reads the late tenth century from its nearer end, the step itself. He also names the Saiddhantika monastery of Golagi, in the Rewa District of Madhya Pradesh, where Somashambhu was abbot when he composed his work on rituals, probably in 1073. Medium because the inscription is dated only by century and one district stands for the block.⁵²
1000 CE	Malabar (Kerala)	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's India entry records copper plates that the Cheraman Perumal emperor gave the Jewish leader Joseph Rabban in 1001, chartering an autonomous Jewish principality under the suzerainty of the Hindu maharajah. Low because the evidence is one royal charter and the block is all of Kerala.²⁶⁹
1000 CE	Polonnaruwa	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO writes that Polonnaruwa became Sri Lanka's second capital after the destruction of Anuradhapura in 993, and that it holds Brahmanic (Hindu) monuments built by the Cholas, the Tamil dynasty that, Lodrick writes, brought Sri Lanka under its control. Medium because neither source dates the monuments more closely; Hindu communities elsewhere in Sri Lanka are not drawn before 1900 for want of a dated source that locates them.²⁷⁰²⁷¹
1000 CE	Thanesar (Kurukshetra)	Present	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer writes that Thanesar, on the Saraswati, the most sacred place in the holy land of Kurukshetra, continued to be a place of great sanctity until 1014. Medium because one shrine stands for the Haryana block; GeoNames places Thanesar in it. The rest of the northwest, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar are drawn at this step in rows of their own.²⁵⁴²⁵⁵
1000 CE	The Punjab and Rajasthan	Present	Low	Both	Narayanan writes that archaeological evidence from the second century BCE suggests that Vasudeva was worshiped in north-western India, and Dandekar writes that northern and central India saw a truly exuberant branching of Vaishnava devotion from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, naming Mira Bai of Rajasthan (sixteenth century). The row reads these two mentions of Hindu worship a century or more apart, each for a larger area that contains these blocks, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and because both sources describe the region broadly.²⁵²²⁵¹
1000 CE to 1250	Eastern Java	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson writes that Airlangga (about 1010 to 1050), founder of the kingdom of Kahuripan in eastern Java, was consecrated king in 1019 or 1020 by Buddhist, Shaiva, and brahmin dignitaries, and that the kings of the Singhasari period (1222 to 1292) supported both Shaivism and Buddhism. Medium because the evidence is royal and shared with Buddhism, and "eastern Java" is broad.⁵²
1000 CE to 1250	Gujarat	Present	Low	Both	Sanderson writes that an inscription of the year 766 to 767 calls every Maitraka king of Valabhi that it lists entirely devoted to Siva, and cites a grant of 1063 by the Chaulukya king Bhimadeva of Gujarat, made after the king had worshipped Maheshvara (Siva); Dandekar names the Vaishnava saint Narsi Mehta (fifteenth century, Gujarat). The row reads two mentions of Hindu worship in Gujarat a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between: the inscription of 766 to 767 and the grant of 1063 for 1000 CE, and that grant and Narsi Mehta for 1250. Low for that reason. GeoNames places Valabhi (Valabhipur) in the Gujarat block.⁵²²⁵¹²⁶²
1000 CE to 1700	Orissa	Present	Medium	Both	Narayanan writes that Puri, on the east coast in Orissa, has been one of the most important pilgrimage centers for at least the last millennium, and O'Connell that Chaitanya lived at Puri from 1516, worshiping Jagannatha. Witzel gives Jagannatha of Orissa as an example of local deities identified with the standard Hindu gods, and Urban names the Lingaraj Temple in Bhubaneswar among the great Shaiva temple complexes. Medium because "at least the last millennium" fixes the start of the run only roughly. 1800 and 1850 are drawn in the row for India at those steps.²⁵²²⁶⁴²⁴⁵²⁷²
1000 CE to 1900	Bali	Present	Medium	Both	Narayanan writes that Hindu dynasties ruled in Bali after the ninth century and that small pockets of Hindus have lived there continuously. McCauley reports Sanskrit inscriptions in Bali from the eighth century, and writes that after east Java's Majapahit kingdom fell to Islamic forces in 1515, its court officials fled to Bali and strengthened the Indianized literary and statecraft traditions that endured there, in a Bali that, she writes, Islam did not influence. Medium because Narayanan speaks of "small pockets" of Hindus, not of the whole island.²⁵⁸²⁷³
1250 to 1600	Northern and central India	Present	Medium	Both	Dandekar writes that northern and central India saw a truly exuberant branching of Vaishnava devotion from the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries, and names Mira Bai of Rajasthan and Tulsidas of Uttar Pradesh (both 16th century). Hiltebeitel writes that Hindu sectarian traditions multiplied, particularly in the period of the breakup of the Delhi sultanate (1206 to 1526), and Urban writes that by the eleventh or twelfth century Shaivism had spread throughout most of South Asia. Medium because the sources describe the region broadly; Dandekar's seventeenth century reaches 1700, which is drawn with the Mughal lands in rows of their own.²⁵¹²⁵⁰²⁷²
1250 to 1700	Kerala	Present	Medium	Both	Mencher writes that the heyday of the Nambudiri Brahmans' system was between the twelfth and seventeenth centuries, that before the British parts of Trichur were ruled by the heads of temple boards, and that after the British took control toward the end of the eighteenth century the Nambudiris, deprived of their political role but still keeping their standing as religious authorities, withdrew to their estates; in the Keralolpatty, a traditional account written down in the eighteenth century, each of their thirty-two settlements in Kerala had its own temple. Medium because the source describes Kerala broadly; 500 CE, 750 CE, 1000 CE, 1800, and 1850 have rows of their own.²⁵⁰²⁵⁷
1500	Majapahit, eastern Java	Present	Low	Both	Sanderson dates the Majapahit period, with its royal support of both Shaivism and Buddhism, to 1293 to about 1500, and McCauley writes that Majapahit, the east Javanese kingdom, fell to Islamic forces in 1515. Narayanan writes that the explicit practice of Hindu traditions in Southeast Asia, Indonesia among the places she names, died out by about the fifteenth century, so the sources differ at this step; low for that reason.⁵²²⁷³²⁵⁸
1500 to 1600	Assam	Present	Medium	Both	Dandekar names Shankaradeva (about the fifteenth to sixteenth century, Assam) among the teachers who fostered Vaishnava devotion, and O'Connell writes that the movement Chaitanya (1486 to 1533) catalyzed spread devotion to Krishna, to a lesser extent, to Assam. Medium because the sources name one teacher and no place within Assam.²⁵¹²⁶⁴
1500 to 1600	Gujarat	Present	Medium	Both	Dandekar names the Vaishnava saint Narsi Mehta (15th century, Gujarat) and Dadu (16th century, Gujarat and Rajasthan), and Witzel writes that manuscript colophons show the spread of Krishna worship in Gujarat around 1550 or 1600. Medium because the sources give single figures and dates; 1700 is drawn with the Mughal lands.²⁵¹²⁴⁵
1500 to 1600	Haridwar	Present	Low	Both	The Himalayan Academy's Hindu timeline records Haridwar, a pilgrimage town on the Ganges, sacked by Timur in 1399. It reports the town sacked, not its people killed or its worship ended, so the row does not read the sack as an end, unlike the sack of Guangzhou in 879, which the Islam layer reads as one because its source records the city's people put to the sword and the Muslim communities later reconstituted. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that near the chief city of Siba, a province of the Mughal's dominions, a rock and the Ganges falling on it were worshipped as holy. His name for the city is garbled in the scan's text of that passage, but his table of the Mughal's dominions lists Hardware among Siba's cities, read here as Haridwar, though Moll puts the city in the 40th degree of latitude, about ten degrees north of where GeoNames places Haridwar. The row reads the two mentions of Hindu worship at Haridwar, a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Haridwar in the Uttarakhand block, drawn at 1700 with the Mughal lands.²⁴⁶¹²⁷²⁷⁴
1500 to 1600	Kashmir	Present	Low	Both	Witzel writes that the name Hindu was only slowly accepted as the self-designation of non-Muslim Indians, as by the Kashmiri Jonaraja (early fifteenth century), and Moll's geography of 1701, which describes the religion of India's Hindus as taught by the Brahmans and practiced in temples, names among the chief places of the kingdom of Kashmir a temple of that religion and a wonderful spring that draws votaries to it. The row reads two mentions of Hindus in Kashmir a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. Kashmir is drawn from 1700 in rows of their own.²⁴⁵¹²⁷
1700	Goa (the peninsula within the Ganges)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the inhabitants of the peninsula of India within the Ganges were generally Muslims, especially those near the sea coasts, but that the people of the inland parts followed religions other than Islam and Christianity, which Moll's of 1701 names as the religion of the Hindus. The Goa block, which by this site's reading takes in inland country in the Western Ghats, is drawn here, as the Islam layer reads the same sentence for it; the peninsula's other blocks are drawn at this step in rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the peninsula broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	The Mughal empire	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of the inhabitants of the Mughal empire followed religions other than Islam and Christianity, and that Islam came next to them; he names among them the Banians and the Parsis, whom he calls descendants of the ancient Persians, so his word takes in more than the Hindus. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the religion of India, apart from Christianity and Islam, was that of the Hindus, the country's original inhabitants, taught by the Brahmans, and that near the chief city of Siba, a province of the Mughal's dominions, a rock and the Ganges falling on it were worshipped as holy. His name for that city is garbled in the scan's text of the passage, but his table of the Mughal's dominions lists Hardware among Siba's cities, read here as Haridwar, which GeoNames places in the Uttarakhand block, though Moll puts the city in the 40th degree of latitude, about ten degrees north of Haridwar. The row reads Gordon's word for the Hindus through Moll's statement. The blocks are Gordon's empire, by this site's reading of his bounds, the same that the Islam and Jewish layers use at this step, drawn here and in the next row; Moll's list of the empire's northern kingdoms also names Naugracut, whose chief city stood near the head of the Ravi, not yet placed on today's blocks. The census figures of 1901 for these blocks (the United Provinces, Bihar, Rajputana, Central India, Bombay, Baroda, the Delhi Division, and Kumaun) do not point the other way. Medium because the sources describe the empire as a whole and give no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷²³¹²⁷⁵²⁷⁶²⁷⁷²⁷⁴
1700	The Mughal empire (Sind, the Punjab, Kashmir, and Bengal)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of the inhabitants of the Mughal empire followed religions other than Islam and Christianity, which Moll's of 1701 names as the religion of the Hindus, as in the row before. By this site's reading of the empire's bounds these blocks lie within it, but each has a later figure of its own that points the other way, which keeps the empire's majority off it: in 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer reports, Muslims were 76 percent of Sind's British Districts and the majority in the Punjab's Lahore and Multan Divisions, Islam was the religion of 74 percent in Kashmir and of two-thirds of the people of Eastern Bengal, and the Indian Punjab and West Bengal blocks each take in districts of divisions with different majorities (the Jullundur Division 52 percent Hindu by this site's arithmetic, the Lahore Division 60 percent Muslim; Malda and Jalpaiguri in the Rajshahi Division, 36.3 percent Hindu). Medium because the sources describe the empire as a whole.⁶⁸¹²⁷²³¹²⁷⁸²⁷⁹²⁸⁰²⁸¹²⁸²
1800	Jaffna	Present	Low	Both	Johnston, Chief Justice of Ceylon, writes that in 1806 he proposed to the government a plan to give privileges to the Hindu capitalists of Jaffna and of the opposite peninsula of India, drawn up with the help of the most learned of the Brahmans and Hindus of Ceylon and Ramissarum (Rameswaram, by this site's reading). Low because the source names the Hindus of Jaffna in passing.²⁸³²⁸⁴
1800 to 1850	India (Hindoostan)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	For 1800, the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which gives no year for these passages and writes in the present tense, bounds Hindoostan from the Panjab and the course of the Indus on the west to the lower Brahmaputra and Chittagong on the east, and from Tartary to Cape Comorin; it writes that Muslims were only one in ten of its people, that it held 10,000,000 Muslims, and that the Hindus' faith, which the same edition's article on the Hindus calls the religion of the Brahmins, was held by ninety millions of people in India: about nine-tenths, by this site's arithmetic; its article on Hindostan writes that in the provinces under British rule both Hindus and Muslims had been left free to practice their religion. For 1850, the eighth edition's article on Hindustan, in a volume dated 1856, which gives no year for the passage, writes that the great division of the people was into Hindus and Muslims, in the proportion of about seven to one. The blocks are those of today's India that lie inside both articles' bounds, by this site's reading, where no figure in hand from outside the step's window points the other way (the census figures of 1901 in hand for these parts agree; none covers Puducherry). The Jharkhand and Himachal Pradesh blocks, with the other blocks whose own figures point the other way, are drawn as present in the rows that follow. Medium because both statements cover the country as a whole and give no figures for its parts.³⁸²⁸⁵²⁸⁶¹⁹⁰²³¹²⁷⁵
1800 to 1850	India (Hindoostan), where the parts' own figures point the other way	Present	Medium	Both	The two Britannica articles of the row before place Hindus in these blocks, by this site's reading of their bounds, and give a Hindu majority for the country as a whole, but each block has a figure or statement of its own, from outside the step's window, that points the other way, which keeps the country's majority off it. In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer reports, Muslims were 76 percent of Sind's British Districts and the majority in the Punjab's Lahore and Multan Divisions; Islam was the religion of 74 percent in Kashmir and of two-thirds of the people of Eastern Bengal; and the Indian Punjab and West Bengal blocks each take in districts of divisions with different majorities (the Jullundur Division 52 percent Hindu by this site's arithmetic, the Lahore Division 60 percent Muslim; Malda and Jalpaiguri in the Rajshahi Division, 36.3 percent Hindu). For the Islamabad and Chandigarh blocks, which no source in hand places in a division of 1901, the nearest figure in hand is the Punjab's own, 53 percent Muslim. The same volume writes that in two Districts of Chota Nagpur nearly one person in two was an Animist (its term for the local traditional religions), which keeps the majority off the Jharkhand block, where GeoNames places the Chota Nagpur District of Ranchi, as the row for 1900 reads the same page. For the Himachal Pradesh block, where GeoNames places Kangra and Shimla, the figures of 1901 in hand are those of the Punjab's Jullundur Division, which held Kangra District and the states of Mandi and Suket, 52 percent Hindu by this site's arithmetic, and of its Delhi Division, which held Simla District, 71 percent Hindu; for the rest of the block, which no source in hand places in a division, the nearest figure in hand is the Punjab's own, 53 percent Muslim, as for the Islamabad and Chandigarh blocks, so the block mixes parts with different figures. Neill and Mullins write that by the end of the sixteenth century the great majority of the population in the Portuguese possessions, which by this site's reading take in Goa and Daman and Diu, had entered the Catholic Church. Medium because the articles describe the country as a whole.³⁸²⁸⁵¹⁹⁰²³¹²⁷⁸²⁷⁹²⁸⁰²⁸¹²⁸²⁹⁸²⁷⁵²⁸⁷²⁸⁸²⁸⁹
1850	Assam and Peshawar	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Hindustan in a volume dated 1856, counts Northern Hindustan, the Himalaya with its lower ranges from Peshawar and Kashmir to Bhutan and Assam, within the country, and writes that the great division of its people was into Hindus and Muslims, about seven to one. Later accounts of these two blocks keep that majority off them: in 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer reports, 92 percent of the enumerated population of the North-West Frontier Province were Muslims, with Hindu traders found even in its wildest tracts; and the same Gazetteer writes that Hinduism predominated everywhere except in the more inaccessible tracts of the central highlands and the eastern outskirts, and explains its smaller share in some provinces by the prevalence of animism (its term for the local traditional religions) in the hill tracts of Assam. The Assam block, by this site's reading, takes in some of those hill tracts on the eastern outskirts, where the Gazetteer writes that Hinduism did not predominate, so the block mixes tracts with different majorities and is drawn as present. GeoNames places Peshawar in the block drawn. Medium because the article describes the country as a whole.¹⁹⁰²³¹²⁹⁰³⁴
1850	The northern districts of Ceylon	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Ceylon in a volume dated 1854, which gives no year for the passage, writes that in the northern districts the Hindu religion prevails, the inhabitants being chiefly Malabars (speakers of Tamil, in its account of the island's languages), who inherit the worship of Shiva from their ancestors. The row reads "the northern districts" as the five districts of today's Northern Province, by this site's reading. Medium because the article describes the districts together and gives no count.⁷⁴
1850	The sea-board of Ceylon	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Ceylon in a volume dated 1854, which gives no year for the passage, writes that the Tamil tongue was used by the Moors and the Malabars of Ceylon, who were to be met with in great numbers on the sea-board; it describes the Malabars, the chief inhabitants of the northern districts, as inheriting the worship of Shiva from their ancestors, and writes that they had a complete version of the Puranas, Hindu sacred texts, in Tamil verse. The article itself ties the Malabars to the Hindu religion, and a period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a place draws that place, for every faith; the blocks are the maritime districts outside the Northern Province, by this site's reading: those the Buddhism layer draws from the same article's account of the coast, with Puttalam, on the north-west coast, where the article places speakers of Tamil. Medium because the article describes the coast broadly and gives no count.⁷⁴
1850 to 1900	Guyana's coast	Present	Medium	Both	The Worldmark entry on the Hindus of Guyana writes that over some eighty years from about 1838, Indians came as indentured laborers for Guyana's sugar plantations and many stayed, and that Guyana's Hindus live on the narrow coastal strip. Medium because the entry places the Hindus on the coast only for the present day; the regions are the coastal ones.²⁹¹
1850 to 1900	Nepal	Present	Medium	Both	Witzel writes that in 1851 (the title of a study he cites gives 1854) Nepal's Rana rulers compiled, in the Muluki Ain, the strictest caste regulations anywhere, which lasted until 1960, and he describes the continuing Hinduization of tribal religions in Nepal's mountains. Lodrick writes that the Gurkhas, after taking the Kathmandu valley in 1768, laid out the modern state of Nepal. Sanderson calls the Pashupati temple's Shiva the national Shiva, to whom all Nepalese kings from the time of Amshuvarman have declared their allegiance. Medium because the regulations were the rulers' and the sources describe the country broadly.²⁴⁵⁵³⁵²
1850 to 1900	Trinidad	Present	Medium	Both	Klass writes that the first 225 indentured laborers from India reached Trinidad on May 30, 1845, that most were brought to sugar estates in the counties of Caroni, Victoria, and Saint Patrick, and that the overwhelming majority of the laborers considered themselves Hindus. Medium because the regions take in all of Trinidad, while the source names those three counties.²⁹²
1900	Bengal	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Hindus were 83 percent of the Burdwan Division, which covers the area commonly known as West Bengal (the scan reads the year "1 90 1"), and 50 percent of the Presidency Division, known as Central Bengal; they were 36.3 percent of the Rajshahi Division (scan "36-3") and nearly 47 percent of Sylhet District. The West Bengal block takes in the Burdwan Division, the Presidency Division apart from Jessore and Khulna, and Malda and Jalpaiguri, which the Gazetteer places in the Rajshahi Division. Hindus were the largest group in both western divisions, but the block cannot be split, so the step is drawn as present; medium because the divisions of 1901 match today's blocks only approximately.⁶⁹²⁹³²⁸²²⁹⁴²⁹⁵²⁹⁶²⁹⁷
1900	Burma	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Burma's census returned 285,484 persons as Hindus, beside 88.6 percent of the population returned as Buddhists (the scan reads "88-6"), without saying where in Burma the Hindus lived. Medium because the row takes the whole country for a count that the source does not place.⁶⁹
1900	Chota Nagpur and Assam (the province of 1901)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, Hinduism was professed by seven persons in ten in India and predominated everywhere except in the more inaccessible tracts in the central highlands and on the eastern outskirts, and in certain tracts where it had yielded to Islam and Christianity; it writes that nearly one person in two was an Animist (its term for the local traditional religions) in two Districts of Chota Nagpur, and explains Hinduism's smaller share in some provinces by Animism in the hill tracts of Assam. The blocks are the Chota Nagpur of 1901, where GeoNames places the Gazetteer's Ranchi District, and the province of Assam beyond Sylhet, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same volume's figures for Bengal and Assam onto them. The volume gives no Hindu share for either, and each takes in the tracts it names for Animism, so all are drawn as present. Medium because the units of 1901 and today's blocks match only approximately.²³¹²⁸⁷
1900	Fiji	Present	Medium	Both	Williams writes that the first indentured laborers from India reached Fiji in 1879, that the system lasted until 1916, and that most of the laborers were Hindu. Medium because the source names Fiji as a whole; it places most Indo-Fijians on Viti Levu only for the present day.²⁹⁸
1900	Gujarat	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, the share of the population professing Hinduism exceeded four-fifths in Bombay, excluding Sind (vol. I, p. 472); its article on Gujarat places the Gujarat Districts and States in the Bombay Presidency, and the province's figure counts for them, as a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. The block also takes in Baroda State, which the Gazetteer describes as a Native State in direct relations with the Government of India rather than part of Bombay; its article gives 1,546,992 Hindus in a population of 1,952,692 in 1901, or 79 percent (computed). Kim writes that the Swaminarayan movement's seats at Ahmedabad and Vadtal still exist. Medium because the figure for the Bombay part is the province's, not Gujarat's own.²³¹²⁹⁹²⁷⁷³⁰⁰³⁰¹³⁰²
1900	Kangra and Simla (the Jullundur and Delhi Divisions)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, the Punjab's Jullundur Division, whose Kangra District lies entirely in the hills, counted 2,242,490 Hindus in a population of 4,306,662, or 52 percent (computed; the scan loses the printed figure), and the five Native States under its Commissioner, Mandi and Suket among them, were 52 and a fraction percent Hindu; the Delhi Division, which held the small District of Simla and the hill station of Kasauli, was 71 percent Hindu (the scan reads "71 j)er cent"). GeoNames places Kangra and Shimla in the Himachal Pradesh block, so each division's figure counts for the part of the block it covers, as a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. The two figures do not cover the rest of the block, which no source in hand places in a division; for it the nearest figure in hand is the Punjab's own, 53 percent Muslim, as the row for the Punjab reads it for the Chandigarh and Islamabad blocks. The block mixes parts with different figures, so it is drawn as present. Medium because the divisions of 1901 and today's block match only approximately.²⁸¹²⁷⁵²³¹²⁸⁸²⁸⁹
1900	Kashmir	Present	Medium	Both	Sanderson writes that among the very numerous pilgrimage sites of Kashmir those sacred to Shiva, Bhairavas, and Shaiva goddesses are overwhelmingly in the majority, as the Kasmiratirthasamgraha shows, a collection of materials gathered by the local Sanskrit scholar Sahibram (died 1872), with a staff of Pandits, for Maharaja Ranbir Singh (reigned 1868 to 1885). Medium because, by this site's reading of the reign and death dates, the collection dates from about 1868 to 1872, 28 to 32 years before the step; 1850 is drawn in the row for India at that step.⁵²
1900	Kumaun, Dehra Dun, and Tehri	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Hindus formed more than 92 percent of Kumaun, the most northern Division of the United Provinces, whose chief Hindu temples and places of pilgrimage are the shrines of Badrinath and Kedarnath. The block also takes in Dehra Dun District, in the United Provinces' Meerut Division, for which the province's figure (Hinduism above four-fifths; vol. I, p. 472) counts, as a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, and Tehri State, where, the Gazetteer writes, more than 99 percent of the population are Hindus. Medium because the units of 1901 and today's block match only approximately.²⁷⁶²³¹³⁰³³⁰⁴³⁰⁵³⁰⁶³⁰⁷³⁰⁸
1900	Natal	Present	High	Both	South African History Online writes that indentured Indians came to work on Natal's sugar plantations from 1860, nearly 152,184 arriving by 1911, and that Indians numbered around a hundred thousand of Natal's population of one million in 1904, 87 percent of them Hindu, ten percent Muslim, and two percent Christian: about 87,000 Hindus, some 9 percent of Natal, by this site's arithmetic. High because the sources agree and give a figure four years from the step.³⁰⁹³¹⁰
1900	Orissa	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, Hinduism was professed by nine-tenths of the population in Orissa (vol. I, p. 472). Medium because the Orissa of 1901 and today's Odisha block match only approximately.²³¹
1900	South India and the Deccan	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, Hinduism was professed by nine-tenths of the population in Madras and Mysore and by more than four-fifths in Bombay (excluding Sind) and the Central Provinces (vol. I, p. 472), and Hindus were 88.6 percent of Hyderabad State (vol. XIII, p. 247; the scan reads "88-6") and 68.9 percent of Travancore State (vol. XXIV, p. 9; scan "68*9"). The blocks are today's states that those units of 1901 mostly cover, an approximate match; the Kerala block also takes in the former Cochin State, for which no separate Hindu figure was gathered, so medium.²³¹³¹¹³¹²
1900	Sri Lanka	Present	Medium	Both	Sri Lanka's Department of Census and Statistics gives, for the census of 1901, 826.8 thousand Hindus in a total population of 3,566.0 thousand (Table 2.13), without saying where they lived. Medium because the row takes the whole island for a count that the source does not place.⁷⁸
1900	The Central Provinces and Central India	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, the share of the population professing Hinduism exceeded four-fifths in the Central Provinces and the Agency of Central India, among other tracts (vol. I, p. 472). The blocks are those these units of 1901 mostly cover, an approximate match, so medium.²³¹
1900	The Delhi Division	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Hindus were 71 percent of the Punjab's Delhi Division (the scan reads "71 j)er cent"), whose Districts were Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, and Simla; Rohtak lies in the Haryana block and Delhi in the Delhi block. Medium because the division of 1901 and today's blocks match only approximately.²⁷⁵³¹³³¹⁴
1900	The Lahore and Multan Divisions and Sind	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Muslims were the majority in the Punjab's Lahore and Multan Divisions, which also counted 1,567,402 and 536,052 Hindus, and in Sind's British Districts, which counted 751,252 Hindus; in Sind, it adds, Sikhs were concealed in the census under the name Nanakpanthi Hindus. Medium because the divisions of 1901 match today's blocks only approximately.²⁷⁹²⁸⁰²⁷⁸
1900	The Punjab (Jullundur and Lahore Divisions)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, the Punjab's Jullundur Division, whose Jullundur District lies in this block, counted 2,242,490 Hindus in a population of 4,306,662, or 52 percent (computed; the scan loses the printed figure), while the Lahore Division, whose Amritsar District also lies in this block, was 60 percent Muslim. The block mixes divisions with different majorities, so it is drawn as present. The Chandigarh and Islamabad blocks, which no source in hand places in a division, are drawn with it from the Punjab as a whole, where the Gazetteer gives Islam 53 percent and whose divisions had different majorities, as the Christian layer reads the same volume's province figures for the Chandigarh block. Medium because the divisions of 1901 match today's blocks only approximately.²⁸¹²⁷⁹²³¹³¹⁵³¹⁶
1900	The United Provinces, Bihar, and Rajputana	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, the share of the population professing Hinduism exceeded four-fifths in Bihar, the United Provinces, and the Agency of Rajputana, among other tracts (vol. I, p. 472). The blocks are today's states that most nearly match those units of 1901, an approximate match, so medium.²³¹

2000 BCE, historians' account: In historians' account no Hindu region is drawn at this step: Witzel dates the Vedas to roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, composed by Indo-Aryan speakers newly arrived in the northwestern subcontinent. The tradition's account, drawn at this step, places the Vedas before 3102 BCE, and Danino argues that the Rig Veda dates from before 2600 BCE.²⁴⁵²⁴⁴²⁴⁸

Islam

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
750 CE	al-Andalus	Present	Medium	Both	Fierro dates the conquest of al-Andalus to 711, under the Umayyad caliphate seated in Damascus, and writes that in the Umayyad period (eighth to tenth centuries) Muslims ruled most of the Iberian Peninsula except part of the lands north of the Duero and south of the Pyrenees, where small Christian kingdoms arose. Laroui writes that a Berber client of the general Musa ibn Nusayr led the conquest. Medium because the source describes the area broadly; the building blocks leave out the provinces of the far north.¹¹⁹³¹⁷
750 CE	Balkh	Present	Low	Both	Akiner writes that Sufism, the mystical tradition of Islam, began to reach Central Asia right after the Arab invasion, and that its first centers there appeared in Balkh and Nishapur in the eighth and ninth centuries, a span that includes the step. Low because the source gives no year within that span.³¹⁸³¹⁹
750 CE	Bulghar, on the Volga	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The oral tradition of the Tatars and Bashkirs, von Kügelgen writes in reviewing Frank's study of their histories, holds that the city of Bulghar on the Volga was converted to Islam in the year 9 of the Hijra through a miracle worked by three of Muhammad's companions at his command, and that their successors converted the region around it; she writes that it was first recorded in writing at the end of the eighteenth century. The tradition carries the converted city on from Muhammad's time, so the shape is drawn at 750 CE. In historians' account, as an entry in Science and Its Times gives it, the Volga Bulgars were recently converted when the caliph's embassy, with Ibn Fadlan, reached their capital on May 12, 922; the historians' sources found place no Muslim community on the Volga at this step, and the shared shape begins at 1000 CE. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is.³²⁰³²¹³²²
750 CE	Egypt	Present	High	Both	Atiya and Swanson date the Arab conquest of Egypt to the early 640s. On when Muslims became the majority, the views O'Sullivan reports differ: Hawting after 750; Courbage and Fargues near 80 percent as early as 800; Dennett and Russell 80 percent by the revolt of 831; and el-Leithy not until the fourteenth century. None places a majority within ten years of 750, so this step is drawn as present; high because the sources agree on the conquest of the early 640s.³²³¹²⁴
750 CE	Guangzhou	Present	Low	Both	Chaffee writes of the Muslim merchants of Tang Guangzhou, a frontier port where the monk Ganjin, visiting in 750, marveled at the enormous variety of races, which Persians and Arabs raided in 758, and whose Muslim community had its own judge in an account of 851; he dates the China voyage of the Omani merchant Abu Ubayda probably before 758. A tradition among Hui Muslims, Frankel writes, attributes Islam's arrival in China to a mission led by Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, who is associated with Guangzhou's Huaisheng Mosque and a tomb there; in Ming and Qing accounts, Chaffee writes, Sa'd made three journeys to China, the first as Muhammad's envoy in 629, and at last came to Guangzhou, where he built two mosques and was buried, an account for which he finds no support in Tang sources. Frankel writes that Guangzhou was one of the original centers of Muslim commerce and immigration in the Tang dynasty, which he dates 618 to 906. The tradition's account, which places Muslims at Guangzhou from the seventh century, does not differ from historians' at this step. Low because the evidence dated near this step is a visitor's report, a raid, and a merchant's voyage rather than a settled community; the community with its own judge is dated to 851.³²⁴³²⁵³²⁶
750 CE	Hadhramaut	Present	Medium	Both	Jones writes that after 711 most Ibadi Muslims left Basra for remote parts of the Arab world, Oman, the Hadramawt, Yemen, and North Africa among them, and El-Hibri dates the Ibadis' spread into eastern and southern Arabia, the Hadramawt among it, to the eighth and ninth centuries, a span that includes this step, as the Oman row reads the same sources. Medium because the sources name the region broadly and give no town.³²⁷³²⁸
750 CE	Iran	Present	High	Both	Richard Bulliet estimated that 7 percent of Persians had converted to Islam by 750.³²⁹
750 CE	Iraq	Present	High	Both	Madelung writes that Husayn was killed at Karbala, in Iraq, in 680, and that Kufa was a center of the early Shia; Laroui writes that the Abbasid revolution of 750 moved the capital to Baghdad, and Jones that the Ibadis were first based in Basra.³³⁰³¹⁷³²⁷
750 CE	Kodungallur and Malabar	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The opinion in general circulation among the Muslims of Malabar, Zainuddin Makhdum records in his 16th-century Tuhfat al-Mujahidin, is that a king of Malabar became a Muslim in Muhammad's time, and that Malik ibn Dinar's party later sailed to Kodungallur, settled there, and built a mosque, while Malik ibn Habib built mosques throughout Malabar and left children at Kulam; Kerala's tourism department gives 629 CE for the Cheraman Juma Mosque at Kodungallur, which it says is considered the first mosque in India, and writes that the arrival of Islam marked the beginning of a long-standing coexistence, whose heritage the Mappila community's identity continues to reflect. Zainuddin himself thought the king's conversion came about two hundred years after the Hijra, and Suraj dates the Tharisapalli copper plates, whose Arabic portion gives eleven Muslim names, to 849. Asani writes that the Mappilas' Arab ancestors came to the coast as traders at least as early as the eighth century, an arrival dated only by its century, and that Ibn Battuta found mosques and qadis there in 1342; historians' account is drawn from 1000 CE on those two mentions, so the tradition's shape is drawn at 750 CE only. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition's own sources also differ on its date.³³¹³³²³³³³³⁴
750 CE to 1000 CE	Ifriqiya and the Maghreb	Present	Medium	Both	Laroui writes that the first Arab armies reached Ifriqiya in 647, that the conquest was almost complete after 701, and that in 740 the Berbers of northern Morocco rose against the Umayyads in the name of values taught by Islam itself, influenced by Kharijite teaching; Kharijite principalities followed after 754 at Tahart and Sijilmasah, and the Idrisids (787) and Aghlabids (800) after them. Levtzion and Chande write that empire-building took Islam to Morocco and Spain. Medium because the sources describe the region broadly.³¹⁷³³⁵
750 CE to 1000 CE	Sind	Present	Medium	Both	Asani writes that an Arab expedition under Muhammad ibn Qasim conquered parts of Sind in 711 and, with local allies, founded a state that survived for nearly three centuries, and that Ismailis held strongholds in Sind in the tenth century; Waldman writes that the Fatimids established an Ismaili missionary in Sind. Medium because the source says "parts of Sind" and gives few dates. The row stops at 1000 CE: the source's next dated points for Sind, Nizari preachers who came there, according to tradition, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and the death of the qalandar La'l Shahbaz in 1325, fall away from 1250, and his shrine carries Sind from 1500 in a row of its own.³³⁶³³⁷
750 CE to 1000 CE	The Hijaz (Mecca and Medina)	Present	Medium	Both	Waldman writes that the Muslims took Mecca in 630 and that by his death in 632 Muhammad ruled virtually all of Arabia, and Armstrong that Medina remained the capital of the Islamic polity for thirty years after he took Mecca. Laroui writes that Malik ibn Anas (died 796) lived all his life in Medina, and Waldman that the Fatimids' occupation of Mecca and Medina was complete by the end of the 10th century. Medium because these steps rest on a scholar's life and a dynasty's rule rather than on accounts of the people of the Hijaz.³³⁸³³⁹³¹⁷³³⁷³⁴⁰³⁴¹
750 CE to 1250	Arran, Derbent, and Dagestan	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that Derbent became Islam's northernmost bastion under an Arab governor (734 to 744), that by the end of the eighth century Islam was the dominant religion of Arran and the coastal plain south of Derbent, that it spread slowly through the mountains of Dagestan, and that under the Mongol rule that followed the expeditions of 1220 and 1239, Caucasian Islam became more deeply rooted among the people. Medium because Islam reached most of Dagestan only centuries after Derbent; "dominant religion" is not drawn as a majority. The run ends at 1250: the source's next dated passages for Azerbaijan are Timur's campaigns of 1385 to 1395 and the Safavid conquest of 1538.²⁰²³⁴²
750 CE to 1250	Quanzhou	Present	Medium	Both	Dillon writes that gravestones and inscriptions at Quanzhou give evidence of a Muslim community of traders already well established in the early eighth century and highly developed by the end of the Southern Song in the thirteenth, and that its Arab Mosque, the only one surviving from that period, was built in 1009 to 1010. Medium because the row takes all of Fujian for one port city.³⁴³³⁴⁴
750 CE to 1500	Syria, with Jerusalem	Present	Medium	Both	Carlson's study of Islamization in Syria from 600 to 1500 takes the region as medieval Arabic geographers defined it, from the Euphrates to al-Arish and from the Arabian desert to the Mediterranean. In Jerusalem, Britannica dates the Dome of the Rock to 691 to 692 and writes that the Abbasids, Fatimids, and Ayyubids renovated it and that Suleyman I restored it in the 16th century; the Ottomans took the city in 1517, Simon and Fischbach write. UNESCO writes that the Umayyad caliphate made Damascus its capital. Waldman writes that the Fatimids expanded into southern Syria and absorbed the Hamdanids of Aleppo after 1004, that the Seljuqs replaced the Fatimids in Syria after 1071, that Mamluk Egypt held it in the early fifteenth century, and that the Ottomans ruled it within the period 1405 to 1683. On a majority, historians differ: Fowden, as O'Sullivan quotes him, holds that Iraq, Syria, North Africa, and Egypt had an almost entirely Muslim population by the 11th century, a statement about a whole century rather than a year near a step. Carlson declines to name a date, citing the lack of evidence and, more importantly, doubting that such a date means much; the Ottoman tax registers he cites, which show a large Muslim majority in the sixteenth century, are drawn at 1600 in a row of their own. Medium because the sources describe the region broadly.¹³⁰³⁴⁵³⁴⁶³⁴⁷¹¹⁹³³⁷³⁴⁸³⁴⁹¹²⁴
750 CE to 1600	Oman	Present	Medium	Both	Jones writes that after 711 most Ibadi Muslims left Basra for remote lands, Oman among them, and that in Oman they survived in numbers with a tradition going back unbroken to Basra; El-Hibri dates their spread into eastern and southern Arabia to the eighth and ninth centuries, a span that includes the 750 CE step. Levtzion and Chande describe Oman's rising power at the end of the seventeenth century and its sultan's move to Zanzibar in the 1830s. Medium because the sources give few dates between. Oman is drawn with Arabia at 1700.³²⁷³²⁸³³⁵
750 CE to 1700	Ceylon's north-east, north, and west coasts	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The tradition that prevails among the descendants of Ceylon's first Muslim settlers, as Johnston reports it in 1827, holds that the first Muslims to settle on the island were Arabs of the house of Hashim, driven from Arabia early in the eighth century by the caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, who made eight settlements along its north-east, north, and west coasts, from Trincomalee and Jaffna to Colombo and Galle. His account carries the settlements on: their traders had acquired great wealth very early in the eleventh century, were at their height in the twelfth and thirteenth, kept a lucrative trade in the island's ports to the end of the fifteenth, when the Portuguese found them still holding its trade, and declined gradually from the beginning of the sixteenth; the settlements are read as continuing to 1700, the last step before the shared shape. The oldest record the community pointed to was a Kufic epitaph at Colombo, which Lee, its translator, read as dated in the year 337 of the Hijra. The historians' sources found place no community on the island at these steps. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; Coodramalle and Barbareen are not placed.²⁸³³⁵⁰³⁵¹²⁸⁴³⁵²³⁵³³⁵⁴³⁵⁵
750 CE to 1850	Khorasan and Transoxiana (Merv, Bukhara, Samarkand, and Khwarezm)	Present	High	Both	Akiner writes that Arab armies brought Islam to Khorasan and Transoxiana, that Qutaybah ibn Muslim governed from Merv from 705, and that the region's Sunni Hanafi scholars, Sufi orders (with centers in Merv, Bukhara, and Khwarezm), Timurid rulers, and khanates carried it to the Russian conquest, which came before Eugene Schuyler's visit of 1873; local ishans, she writes, had multiplied by the early nineteenth century. Daniel dates the conquest of Transoxania to about 706 to 712.³¹⁸³⁵⁶³⁴⁹³⁵⁷³⁵⁸³⁵⁹
1000 CE	al-Andalus	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Fierro writes that an early majority of Muslims in the population of al-Andalus was reached in the first half of the tenth century, and that from that time onward Christians lost the demographic battle; Abd al-Rahman III proclaimed himself caliph in 929. Medium because the source describes the area broadly, as in the row before.¹¹⁹³⁶⁰
1000 CE	Egypt	Prevalent	Low	Both	On when Muslims became the majority in Egypt, the views O'Sullivan reports differ: al-Duri holds that Islam became the religion of the majority in the tenth century, and O'Sullivan himself that Christians may have fallen to not much more than 10 percent by the eleventh century or even earlier, mostly in the seventh to tenth centuries, while el-Leithy places the Copts' mass conversion in the fourteenth century. Bodman dates the Fatimids' arrival in Cairo to 969, and Poonawala the founding of al-Azhar to 970. Low because the historians disagree; this step closes the tenth century, of which al-Duri and O'Sullivan speak.¹²⁴³⁶¹³⁶²
1000 CE	Gujarat and the area around Multan	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that the Ismailis, though regarded as subversive by the Abbasids of Baghdad and by Sunni warlords, managed in the tenth century to establish strongholds in Sind, the area around Multan, and Gujarat; Sind is drawn in a row of its own. Low because the source dates the strongholds only by century and names no place in Gujarat, and the Punjab block is far larger than the area around Multan.³³⁶³⁶³
1000 CE	Harar	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO writes that Harar, a city considered the fourth holy city of Islam, numbers 82 mosques, three of which date from the 10th century, a century that contains this step. Medium because one town stands for the block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it.³⁶⁴³⁶⁵
1000 CE	Iran	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Bulliet estimated that nearly 45 percent of Persians converted between 750 and 800, and that it took another hundred years for the majority. Daniel reports Bulliet's estimate, which he notes rests on formal conversions in towns, that by about 950 some 80 percent or more of Iranians had become Muslims, and judges it reasonable to suppose that the Persian milieu as a whole became predominantly Islamic within that time, though in some areas, such as Shiraz around 985, there may still have been strong non-Muslim elements; the vast majority, he writes, became and have remained Muslims. Medium because the figures rest on one historian's estimate.³²⁹³⁵⁶
1000 CE	Iraq	Prevalent	Low	Both	Historians differ. Carlson reports Bulliet's view, which he calls the standard chronology, that Muslims came to outnumber non-Muslims in Iraq in the 880s and approached 90 percent at the end of the tenth century. Carlson himself argues that the Church of the East saw no substantive Islamization before the end of the first millennium and that, if his reading of the geographer Muqaddasi is right, Muslims may have been well under half of Iraq's people in the late tenth century. Low because the sources disagree; Baghdad was the caliphs' capital, Bodman writes.¹¹²³⁶¹
1000 CE	Sicily	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Sicily writes that Muslim settlement in the island began a few years after a ten-year peace made in 813 expired, that by the conquest of Panormus (Palermo) the Muslims were firmly rooted in the island, and that after the complete conquest the slaves had turned Muslim; it describes the island's Muslims as standing high among Muslim nations and Arabic as one of Sicily's two written tongues when the Normans came, and, after the Norman conquest begun in 1060, the Muslims under the Normans, whose religion was everywhere tolerated. The row reads the community, from its settlement to its life under the Normans, as carrying this step. Orlandi, in the New Catholic Encyclopedia, dates the Arab conquest from 827 to 902 and the Norman conquest from 1061 to 1091. Medium because the article describes the whole island broadly.³⁶⁶³⁶⁷
1000 CE	Zeila and the Benadir coast	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Zeila had become a significant Muslim trading settlement by the end of the ninth century, and that migrants from Arabia settled the Benadir coast at Merca, Mogadishu, and Barawa in the ninth and tenth centuries. Medium because the Somaliland block is far larger than Zeila.³³⁵³⁶⁸³⁶⁹
1000 CE to 1250	Kerala (the Mappilas)	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that the Mappilas, as the Muslims of Kerala are called, include populations of Arab origin whose ancestors came to the region as traders and merchants at least as early as the eighth century, and that in 1342 Ibn Battuta found mosques and qadis there, supported by Muslim seamen and merchants. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Kerala a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The eighth century, a date given only by its century, is not read for 750 CE, where the Mappila tradition of Kodungallur is drawn.³³⁶
1000 CE to 1600	The northern highlands of North Yemen (Sa'da)	Present	Medium	Both	Burrowes writes that al-Hadi founded the Zaydi imamate, the state of the Zaydi branch of Shia Islam, among the tribes around Sa'da in 897, and that it lasted, with numerous changes of fortune and breaks in continuity, into the 1960s; Zaydism still prevails in the northern highlands. Medium because of those breaks; the row takes only the region of Sa'da. Sa'da is drawn with Arabia at 1700.³⁷⁰³⁷¹
1000 CE to 1600	Xinjiang	Present	Low	Both	Falkenheim and Hsieh write that as Tang power decreased in the late 9th and early 10th centuries Islam gained many converts in Xinjiang, and that the Qing sent loyal Muslims from Gansu to settle in the oases of northern Xinjiang in the 17th and 18th centuries; no source in hand records an end of Xinjiang's Muslim communities between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Xinjiang a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, and because the block takes in all of Xinjiang.³⁷²
1000 CE to 1900	The Bulgar kingdom and Kazan	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Bulgar king Almas converted to Islam on May 12, 922, that by the end of the tenth century most of the Bulgars were Muslim, though they suppose the rural population, mostly Finnic, remained animist, and that the kingdom's Islamic character survived the Mongols (about 1236). Kazan, they write, was the capital of a Tatar khanate from 1445 until the Russian conquest of 1552, and nearly all Tatar poets from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century belonged to the Naqshbandi order; Waldman places Muslim khanates as far north as Kazan in the early fifteenth century. In the census of 1897 Kazan province, whose district town of Kazan lies in the block, counted 633,024 Muslims, 29.2 percent (computed), and Ufa province, whose district town of Menzelinsk also lies in it, 49.9 percent, with no majority, so the block stays present at 1900. Medium because the sources describe the Middle Volga broadly.²⁰²³⁴⁹²⁰⁵²⁰⁹¹⁹⁵¹⁹⁶³⁷³¹⁹⁸
1250	Anatolia	Present	Medium	Both	Waldman writes that after the Seljuq victory at Manzikert in 1071 large Turkish tribal bands occupied Anatolia, and UNESCO dates the Great Mosque of Divrigi, in Sivas, to 1228 to 1229. A note in O'Sullivan quotes Courbage and Fargues twice, pointing somewhat different ways: Marco Polo's account that the Turks were still a minority two hundred years after Manzikert, and an estimate that in 1200, 43 percent of Anatolia's people were still Christian. Medium because the shape follows the sources' "Anatolia" for the whole peninsula, which they describe broadly.³⁴⁸³⁷⁴¹²⁴³⁷⁵
1250	Egypt	Prevalent	Low	Both	O'Sullivan concludes that Egypt was Islamized "to the order of at least 80%" well within the six centuries before the Mamluks took power in 1250. El-Leithy, as O'Sullivan reports him, holds instead that the fourteenth century alone was the period when the Copts converted en masse. Low because the historians disagree.¹²⁴³²³
1250	Harar	Present	Low	Both	UNESCO dates three of Harar's mosques to the 10th century, and Levtzion and Chande write that the Muslim state of Adal, which asserted itself after the early fourteenth century, held Harar, the most important center of trade and Islam in the interior, drawn at 1500 and 1600. No source in hand records an end of the town's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims at Harar a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and because one town stands for the block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it.³⁶⁴³³⁵³⁶⁵
1250	Iraq	Present	Low	Both	Fowden, as O'Sullivan quotes him, holds that Iraq had an almost entirely Muslim population by the 11th century, while Carlson doubts how far Islamization had gone by the end of the tenth; Waldman writes that in the period 1405 to 1683 the unity of several regions was expressed through empire, the Safavids in Iran and Iraq among them, and that in these empires Sunni and Shii became identities on a much larger scale than ever before, expressing competition between large populations. The row reads Fowden's statement and Waldman's, the second a record for a larger area that contains Iraq, as two records of Muslims in Iraq more than a century apart, with no end of the community recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and present because no source places a majority within ten years of the step.¹²⁴¹¹²³⁴⁹
1250	Lakhnauti, Birbhum, West Dinajpur, and Rajshahi	Present	Medium	Both	Eaton dates Muhammad Bakhtiyar's capture of the Sena capital, Nudiya, to 1204, and quotes the chronicler Minhaj al-Siraj, who visited Bengal forty years later, that Bakhtiyar made Lakhnauti the seat of government and that mosques and colleges were founded in those parts; his appendix of sites under Muslim rulers lists inscriptions or mints in Birbhum (1221), Rajshahi (1229 to 1230 and 1254), Malda (Lakhnauti, 1236), and West Dinajpur (1249). Asani names a thirteenth-century Suhrawardi master in Bengal, Jalal ad-Din Tabrizi. Districts further east are not drawn at this step: Eaton's first dated evidence of Muslim rule there is Rukn al-Din Kaikaus's conquest of southeastern Bengal in 1291, followed by a mint at "Bang", in eastern Bengal, in 1302, and the conquest of Sylhet in 1303 to 1304. Medium because the row takes all of West Bengal.³⁷⁶³³⁶²⁹⁵³⁷⁷
1250	Sicily	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Sicily writes that a revolt of the island's Muslims in 1243, seven years before this step, is said to have been followed by a removal of the whole remnant to Nocera, on the mainland, and adds: "Some, however, certainly stayed or came back". The row reads the mention of 1243 as placing the community within 30 years of the step, and the article's own words as showing that the removal, which names the island, did not end it. Low because the article gives no year or number for those who stayed.³⁶⁶
1250	Sind	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that Ismailis held strongholds in Sind in the tenth century, and that La'l Shahbaz, one of the wandering Muslim holy men he calls qalandars, whose tomb shrine at Sehwan in Sind still attracts thousands of pilgrims, died in 1325. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Sind a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.³³⁶
1250	The Hijaz (Mecca and Medina)	Present	Low	Both	Waldman writes that the Muslims took Mecca in 630, and Laroui that Malik ibn Anas (died 796) lived all his life in Medina; the Encyclopedia of Religion's entries on Africa and Southeast Asia write that Askiya Muhammad Ture of Songhai (1493 to 1528) made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and that Acehnese scholars of Aceh's years of prominence, from the 1520s through the first half of the seventeenth century, are known in the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. No source in hand records an end of the two cities' Muslim communities between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Mecca and Medina a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.³³⁸³¹⁷³³⁵¹⁸¹³⁴⁰³⁴¹
1250	Zeila	Present	Low	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Zeila had become a significant Muslim trading settlement by the end of the ninth century, and that the Muslim state of Adal later held Zeila and Harar, its ruler Ahmad Gran overrunning much of Christian Ethiopia until he was killed in 1543; no source in hand records an end of Zeila's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims at Zeila a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and because the Somaliland block is far larger than Zeila.³³⁵³⁶⁸
1250 to 1500	Delhi	Present	High	Both	UNESCO dates the Qutb Minar near Delhi to the early 13th century and Iltutmish's tomb to the 13th, and says the Quwwatu'l-Islam mosque beside it, the oldest in northern India, was completed by Qutb ud din Aibak and Iltutmish; Hiltebeitel dates the Delhi sultanate to 1206 to 1526. Asani writes that the Chishti master Qutb al-Din Bakhtiyar Kaki (died 1235) spread the order to Delhi, and names the great shaykhs of fourteenth-century Delhi.³⁷⁸²⁵⁰³³⁶³⁷⁹
1250 to 1500	The Nasrid kingdom of Granada	Present	Medium	Both	After Cordova fell in 1236 and Seville in 1248, Fierro writes, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada survived from the middle of the thirteenth century until 1492, and the Mudejares, the Muslims under Christian rule, of Granada and Castile were forced to convert in 1501 and 1502. Medium because the row takes only the province of Granada, though the kingdom reached further.¹¹⁹³⁴⁹³⁸⁰
1250 to 1600	Gujarat	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that the Ismailis managed in the tenth century to establish strongholds in Gujarat, among other places; that Bohra communities, Ismaili Muslims whose name probably comes from the Gujarati word for trader, were probably in existence in Gujarat by the middle of the twelfth century and certainly before the Delhi sultan's conquest of Gujarat began in 1299; and that the Shattari Sufi order spread to Gujarat under the guidance of Muhammad Ghawth of Gwalior (1485 to 1562 or 1563), a spread he does not date. Gordon's geography of 1699 places Muslims across the Mughal empire, which in his account included the kingdom of Cambaia (Gujarat), and no source in hand records an end of Gujarat's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Gujarat a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. Lodrick and Pathak write that Gujarat came under Muslim rule in about 1299 and that the Mughals ruled it by the end of the 16th century, statements about rule that do not by themselves place a community.³³⁶⁶⁸³⁸¹
1250 to 1600	Kanem	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that traders from Tripoli and Fezzan brought Islam to Kanem, northeast of Lake Chad, at the beginning of the twelfth century, that its kings made the pilgrimage and pushed its border into southern Libya in the thirteenth, and that the Kanem-Bornu state peaked under Idris Alawma (1570 to 1603). Medium because the source describes the kingdom broadly; it gives no dates for Kanem after 1603.³³⁵
1250 to 1850	Multan, Uchch, Pakpattan, and Lahore	Present	Medium	Both	Asani names the Suhrawardi Sufi masters of Multan (Baha al-Din Zakariya, 1182 to 1262) and Uchch (to 1384), the Chishti master Farid al-Din of Pakpattan (died 1265), and a Shia scholar appointed judge of Lahore under Akbar in 1586; he writes that the Suhrawardis in the Punjab have always enjoyed state patronage, that a Persianized Muslim elite living along an axis from Lahore to Delhi to the Deccan kept its ties to Central Asia and Iran at least until the eighteenth century, and that poems attributed to Punjabi Sufi poets such as Bullhe Shah (died 1754) are commonly regarded as spiritual commentaries on Quranic verses. Medium because the sources name few points within the run, and the 1800 and 1850 steps rest only on his statement that the Suhrawardis in the Punjab have always enjoyed state patronage.³³⁶³⁶³³⁸²
1250 to 1900	Iran	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Daniel reports Bulliet's estimate, which he notes rests on formal conversions in towns, that by about 950 some 80 percent or more of Iranians had become Muslims, and writes that, despite the anti-Islamic policies of later conquerors such as the Il-khanids, the vast majority of Iranians became and have remained Muslims. Nasr writes that with the Safavids, in the sixteenth century, Persia became mostly Shia, with Twelver Shiism the state religion. For 1700, Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of Persia were for the most part exact observers of Islam, words for most of the people that this site reads as a statement of a majority. The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, following Francklin's account of his tour of 1786 and 1787, writes that the religion of the Persians is Islam, of the branch of Ali, and the eighth, in a volume dated 1859, that the Persians are of the Shia branch, and counts 22,000 Muslims among the 25,000 people of the town of Urumiyah. Medium because the run rests on one author's general statement.³⁵⁶³⁸³⁶⁸¹⁸⁴¹⁸⁵
1250 to 1900	Kilwa and the Swahili coast	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that traders settled south along the coast as far as Kilwa in the twelfth century, that in the early 1330s Ibn Battuta found many Muslims in Kilwa, and that within a century or two Islam had become part of Swahili identity. The Portuguese, from the end of the fifteenth century, ended what they call the coast's first Muslim period, and Omani rule in the nineteenth brought growth in Islamic education along the coast. Medium because the row takes only Kilwa's region and the source gives few dates between.³³⁵³⁴⁹³⁸⁴
1250 to 1900	The Maghreb	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Laroui defines North Africa as Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Mauritania, and writes that it was totally Islamized, apart from a Jewish minority, and that from the twelfth century the vast majority of its people have followed the Maliki school of Sunni law. Kharijite communities persist in the Mzab of Algeria and Jabal Nafusa in Libya, he writes, and El-Hibri names both as homes of the Ibadis, the Kharijite branch that survives today. Medium because one statement covers the whole region.³¹⁷³²⁸
1500	Bidar	Present	Medium	Both	Asani writes that Qadiri Sufis settled at Bidar about the time it became the capital of the Bahmani sultanate in 1422, and that the first independent madrasah, a college of religious learning, was established in 1472 at the city of Bidar, in the Bahmanid state in the Deccan, by the Persian minister Mahmud Gawan, 28 years before this step. Medium because one city stands for the Karnataka block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it.³³⁶³⁸⁵
1500	Gao and Timbuktu (Songhai)	Present	High	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that the kingdom of Gao grew into the Songhai empire, whose ruler Askiya Muhammad (1493 to 1528) used Islam to unite it and revived Timbuktu as a center of Islamic learning, and Waldman places Mali at Gao, with Timbuktu, under a Muslim ruler in the early fifteenth century. UNESCO calls Timbuktu a center for the spread of Islam in Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries.³³⁵³⁸⁶³⁴⁹³⁸⁷³⁸⁸
1500	Majapahit, eastern Java	Present	Low	Both	Johns writes that by the fifteenth century there is sporadic but more substantial evidence, from gravestones, of Muslims in the East Javanese empire of Majapahit, though he calls it hardly more than surmise that they belonged to communities of merchants. Low because the evidence is sporadic and dated only by century; Java's Muslim states are drawn from 1600.¹⁸¹
1500	Malacca	Present	High	Both	Johns writes that Malacca became Muslim shortly after its founding around 1400 and carried Muslim influence through the archipelago until the Portuguese took it in 1511. No source found places Muslims in Malacca itself at a later step, so the row stops at 1500.¹⁸¹³⁸⁹
1500	The Crimean Khanate	Present	Medium	Both	Fisher writes that the Crimean Khanate, a surviving state of the Golden Horde, held all of the Crimean peninsula except its southern and western coast, an Ottoman province after 1475; that Mengli Giray I (khan 1467 to 1476 and 1478 to 1515) built the Zincirli Medrese at Bahce Saray and made the khanate a Sunni Muslim cultural center; and that Russia annexed it in 1783, after nine years of "independence" in what he calls a Muslim, Tatar society. Medium because the source describes the khanate as a whole; 1600, 1700, and 1800 have rows of their own.¹⁹³
1500	The Ottoman Balkans	Present	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 81 percent Christian, 18.6 percent Muslim (186,952 households), and 0.4 percent Jewish, citing Todorov, and Hacısalihoğlu gives the Morea in 1521 as 9 percent Muslim. The row reads the count for the whole peninsula for each block of the mainland Balkans that Hudson writes the Ottomans controlled before 1453, and for the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, which the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes as bounded on the north and west by the Danube, as a larger area's figure is read for the places inside it; the registers' first years fall within 30 years of the step. The row also takes in Turkish Thrace (the Edirne, Kirklareli, and Tekirdag blocks), where Gökbilgin, in the same encyclopedia, counts 144 Muslim and 19 Christian quarters in the city of Edirne in 1528. Bosnia and Istanbul have rows of their own. Left out: Crete, the Ionian Islands, and the Aegean islands, since the entry on Greece writes that many Greeks of the Morea and the northern Aegean islands were moved to Istanbul after 1460, without naming the islands, dates Ottoman rule over Rhodes and the other Aegean islands to Süleyman's time and over Crete to 1669, and no source in hand places the islands in these registers; and Mount Athos, which that entry describes as a center of Orthodox monasteries whose privileges the sultans confirmed, and where no source in hand places Muslims; and the Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save, which lie outside the peninsula. Medium because the figure is for the whole peninsula, not for each block.¹⁴¹¹⁴⁵¹²³¹⁴⁶¹⁴⁷¹⁵⁰
1500 to 1600	Adal (Zeila and Harar)	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that the Muslim state of Adal held Zeila and Harar, the most important center of trade and Islam in the interior; that its ruler Ahmad Gran overran much of Christian Ethiopia until he was killed in 1543; and that Oromo who came into contact with Adal's Muslims in the sixteenth century converted to Islam. Medium because the Somaliland block is far larger than Zeila.³³⁵³⁶⁸³⁶⁵
1500 to 1600	Anatolia and Edirne	Present	Medium	Both	O'Sullivan cites Ottoman records for 1520 to 1535 that put Anatolia's population at more than 92 percent Muslim; their first years fall within 30 years of 1500, but they are too far from 1500 or 1600 for a majority, which needs a figure within ten years of the step, so the row is present. For 1600, Waldman writes that in the period 1405 to 1683 adherence to Islam expanded to approximately its current distribution, that the unity of several regions was expressed through empire, the Ottomans in Anatolia among them, and that in these empires Sunni and Shii became identities on a much larger scale than ever before, expressing competition between large populations; the span contains the step. The blocks are Anatolia, by this site's reading, without Igdir, which no source in hand places within the empire whose records O'Sullivan cites; Thrace is drawn with the Balkans. Medium because the sources describe Anatolia broadly. Natolia is drawn at 1700 from Gordon's geography of 1699, the eastern blocks at 1700 and all of Anatolia at 1800 from these records and the 1911 Britannica's figure for 1896, two mentions of its Muslims a century or more apart, and Anatolia at 1850 as a majority from the Ottoman count of 1844; the 1900 step has its own row, from the 1896 figure. Quataert writes that Islam became the predominant religion of the Ottoman Empire during the nineteenth century and that about 83 percent of its people practiced Islam by 1914, 14 years after 1900, a figure too far from the step to count, since a figure counts only within ten years of a step.³⁴⁹¹²⁴¹²³
1500 to 1600	Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan)	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that by the end of the eighth century Islam was the dominant religion of Arran and the coastal plain south of Derbent, and that under the Mongol rule that followed the expeditions of 1220 and 1239 Caucasian Islam became more deeply rooted among the population; they write that after the Safavids conquered Derbent and Shirvan in 1538 the Twelver Shii rite of the Safavid rulers became the dominant form of Islam in Azerbaijan, 38 years after 1500 and 62 before 1600, and next date Muslims there when the Naqshbandi order reappeared in the province of Shirvan in the 1820s. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Azerbaijan a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. 1700 is drawn in rows of its own.²⁰²
1500 to 1600	Bornu	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that the Saifawa dynasty moved its capital to Bornu, southwest of Lake Chad, in the fourteenth century, and that under Idris Alawma (1570 to 1603) officials were Muslim, the capital N'Gazargamu was a center of Islamic learning, and Islam filtered more widely to the common people. Medium because the source gives no dates for Bornu itself after 1603, apart from the Sokoto campaigns of 1804 to 1810, which reached western Bornu.³³⁵
1500 to 1600	Bosnia	Present	Medium	Both	Mehmed II conquered Bosnia, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry writes, seven years after he took Istanbul in 1453. Lampe writes that after the conquest a large part of Bosnia's people converted to Islam, gradually, and that it took more than a hundred years for Muslims to become an absolute majority; he gives that start only as more than a hundred years after the conquest, without a year, so no majority is drawn at these steps and the row is present. Medium because the source describes Bosnia broadly.¹⁴³¹⁴⁴
1500 to 1600	Dagestan	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the last Christian strongholds of Dagestan's high mountains turned Muslim in the fifteenth century (Karakh in 1435, the Dido and Andi after 1469, Gidatl in 1475 or 1476), that the Ottomans occupied Derbent in 1590, and that in 1594 a joint force of Ottomans, Tatars, and Dagestanis pushed back a Russian army on the Sulaq River in northern Dagestan, in a battle with "all the characteristics of a 'holy war'," and that the Russians, returning in 1604, were again heavily defeated. Medium because the 1500 step rests on conversions dated 24 to 31 years before it.²⁰²³⁴²
1500 to 1600	Gansu, Shaanxi, and Yunnan	Present	High	Both	Dillon writes that under the Ming (1368 to 1644) Chinese-speaking Muslims grew in number and settled as a permanent part of Chinese society, notably in Gansu and Shaanxi and also in Yunnan, and that Hu Dengzhou (1522 to 1597) played a key role in establishing Muslim education in Shaanxi.³⁴³
1500 to 1600	Guangzhou	Present	Low	Both	Chaffee writes that stelae of the fourteenth century and later date China's most ancient mosques, Guangzhou's among them, to the Tang, while most scholars hold that none predates the Song, and that in Ming and Qing accounts Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas built two mosques at Guangzhou and was buried there; Frankel writes that in recent decades Guangzhou's Huaisheng Mosque and Sa'd's tomb have emerged as focal points for Muslim newcomers, as symbols of the city's ancient Islamic heritage. No source in hand records an end of the city's Muslim community after the fourteenth century. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Guangzhou a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, drawn as the block that holds the city, as GeoNames places it. 1700 is drawn with Gordon's China, and 1800 and 1900 in a row of their own.³²⁴³²⁵³²⁶
1500 to 1600	Iraq	Present	Medium	Both	Waldman writes that in the period 1405 to 1683 adherence to Islam expanded to approximately its current distribution, that the unity of several regions was expressed through empire, the Safavids in Iran and Iraq among them, and that in these empires Sunni and Shii became identities on a much larger scale than ever before, expressing competition between large populations; the span contains both steps. Fowden, as O'Sullivan quotes him, holds that Iraq had an almost entirely Muslim population by the 11th century, while Carlson doubts how far Islamization had gone by the end of the tenth; no source places a majority within ten years of these steps, so the row is present. The row stops at 1600; Najaf has its own row from 1700, and the rest of Iraq is drawn at 1700 with Gordon's and Moll's Diarbeck and at 1800 with Asiatic Turkey.³⁴⁹¹²⁴¹¹²
1500 to 1600	Kashmir	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that in Kashmir the Kubrawiyah, a Sufi order (a brotherhood of Muslim mystics), gained a foothold through a visit by Sayyid Ali Hamadani between 1381 and 1384, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Islam came next among the religions of the Mughal empire, which by this site's reading took in Kashmir (the row for the Mughal lands at 1700); no source in hand records an end of the Muslim community there between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Kashmir a century or more apart, the later one for the empire that contains it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, as the Hindu layer reads Jonaraja and Moll for Kashmir at these steps.³³⁶⁶⁸
1500 to 1600	Malabar	Present	Medium	Both	Zainuddin Makhdum's Tuhfat al-Mujahidin, a history in Arabic that Nainar translated, has a chapter on the appearance of Islam in Malabar and gives an account of the Portuguese there from their first arrival in 1498 to 1583; its translator writes that before the Portuguese came the Muslims appear to have been in good condition and treated by the Hindu rulers with great respect, and that Portuguese competition cost them their supremacy in trade. Medium because the source names Malabar broadly, drawn as the Kerala block.³³¹
1500 to 1600	Sind (Sehwan)	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that the tomb shrine of La'l Shahbaz (died 1325), one of the wandering Muslim holy men he calls qalandars, the subject of one of the most popular Sufi praise songs in South Asia, at Sehwan in Sind still attracts thousands of pilgrims, among them many dervishes; the row reads "still" as carrying the shrine's community through these steps. Low because one shrine stands for the Sind block and the source gives no other dated mention of Muslims in Sind at these steps. 1700 is drawn with the Mughal lands, and 1800 and 1850 with Hindostan.³³⁶
1500 to 1600	The Hijaz (Mecca and Medina)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopedia of Religion's entries on Africa and Southeast Asia follow pilgrims and scholars to Mecca and Medina. Askiya Muhammad Ture of Songhai (1493 to 1528) made the pilgrimage to Mecca, and in his time Timbuktu's scholars passed through Cairo "on their way to and from Mecca". Aceh first came to prominence in the 1520s, Johns writes, and was the region's dominant power in the first half of the seventeenth century, and Acehnese scholars of those years are known in "the holy cities of Mecca and Medina". Medium because these steps rest on pilgrims' and scholars' journeys rather than on accounts of the Hijaz itself; the Hijaz is drawn with Arabia at 1700.³³⁵¹⁸¹³⁴⁰³⁴¹
1500 to 1700	Nanjing	Present	Medium	Both	Dillon writes that during the Ming dynasty (1368 to 1644) the spiritual and intellectual center of Chinese Islam was Nanjing, where the Muslim thinker Wang Daiyu (1585 to 1657) flourished; that his teacher Ma Junshi (about 1628 to 1690) brought Hu Dengzhou's methods of Muslim education there; and that Liu Zhi (about 1664 to about 1739), perhaps the best-known Muslim scholar of the Qing dynasty, was born there in the late seventeenth century. Medium because the row takes all of Jiangsu for one city.³⁴³³⁹⁰
1500 to 1800	Istanbul	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Hudson writes that Mehmed II took Constantinople in 1453 and moved the Ottoman capital there from Edirne, and UNESCO lists Ottoman building in Istanbul from the 15th century to the 19th, among it the Suleymaniye Mosque and the New Mosque, completed in 1664. Inalcik's table for the count of 1477 gives 8,951 Muslim households of 14,803, 60 percent, in Istanbul apart from Galata, and his summary table gives 9,517 Muslim households of 16,326 for the same count, and Barkan's estimate for 1535 as 46,635 Muslim households of 80,000; Karpat writes that by the numbers Muslims were in the majority until the nineteenth century, the Muslim character of the city being dominant from the 15th to the early 19th century. The row reads that statement as a span from the Ottoman conquest to the end of the eighteenth century, which contains these steps. Inalcik's summary table counts more Christian than Muslim men in 1833 (102,649 and 73,496); its rows for 1690 and 1826 give two numbers each without showing, in the saved copy, which columns they fill, so they are not read. Medium because the majority statement gives no year for its start and the counts are of households or men; from 1850 the city has a row of its own.¹⁴⁶³⁹¹¹⁵¹¹⁶⁴³⁹²
1500 to 1850	Bengal	Present	Medium	Both	Eaton's appendix lists sites under Muslim rulers dated from 1465 to 1501 in districts across the delta, among them Murshidabad, Hooghly, and Malda in the west, Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Dhaka, Jessore, Bakarganj (Mirzaganj, 1465), and Chittagong, and he cites a Sylhet inscription dated 1512 to 1513. He writes that Mughal forces entered the Bengali capital in 1574 and reached Dhaka in 1610, that solid evidence of a Muslim peasant population appears only from the late sixteenth century, and that the Fara'idi movement, begun by Haji Shariat Allah (died 1840), swept the countryside in the nineteenth century; Asani names a Chishti master in Bengal, Siraj ad-Din (died 1357). Eaton also writes that Bengal's Muslim society from the thirteenth century through the sixteenth was overwhelmingly urban, concentrated in its capitals and in Satgaon, Sonargaon, and Chittagong, and that Islamic values diffused over the countryside in the course of the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Medium because the sources describe Bengal broadly and the Bakarganj date falls well before 1500.³⁷⁶³³⁶²⁹⁵³⁷⁷³⁹³³⁹⁴²⁹⁷³⁹⁵³⁹⁶³⁹⁷
1500 to 1850	Egypt	Prevalent	Medium	Both	O'Sullivan finds plausible Wiet's suggestion that the Copts were only 10 percent of Egypt's population after 1354, and writes that they suffered no serious blow from the late Mamluk period until the first census, in 1846, which put them at about 8 percent. Atiya and Swanson write that many Copts converted to Islam in the Mamluk era (1250 to 1517). For 1850, the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in a volume dated 1855, writes in the present tense that the Muslims make up seven-eighths of the population of Egypt, beside Lane's figures of 1834 by class. Medium because O'Sullivan calls the suggestion only plausible.¹²⁴³²³¹²⁹
1500 to 1900	Hausaland (Kano and Katsina)	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Islam reached Hausaland in the fourteenth century, that King Rumfa of Kano is believed to have installed Muslim judges under the influence of al-Maghili, who visited Kano in 1493, that devotional literature in Hausa grew by the eighteenth century, and that the jihad of 1804 to 1810 left Hausa society transformed and its state and institutions Islamized, with Usuman's descendants still influential under colonial rule. Medium because the source gives few dates between.³³⁵³⁹⁸³⁹⁹
1600	Athens	Present	Low	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that by the registers Athens had 3,253 Christian and forty-three Muslim households in 1540, and 3,150 Christian and fifty-seven Muslim households, with the castle garrison, in 1570, 30 years before this step. Low because the Muslim households were few and the figures are for the town, drawn as the Attica block.¹⁴⁵⁴⁰⁰
1600	Bijapur	Present	Low	Both	Asani writes that Bijapur supported the Twelver Shii position from 1510 to 1534 and again between 1558 and 1580, the nearer end 20 years before 1600, and that its Shii ruler Ali Adil Shah I (died 1580) invited the Iranian scholar Shah Fathullah Shirazi to his court, and that the Bijapur sultanate became a major center for the Qadiri Sufi order. Low because one city stands for the Karnataka block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it; 1700 is drawn with the peninsula.³³⁶⁴⁰¹
1600	Bulgaria, Serbia, Salonica, and Central Greece	Present	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 18.6 percent Muslim, and Moll's geography of 1701 places Turks in Bulgaria and Servia, at Salonica and Negropont (ancient Chalcis), and, with two mosques, at Thebes, and Gordon's of 1699 counts Muslims among the people of the Danubian provinces, Romania (the old Thrace) among them; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, and no source in hand records an end of the Muslim communities there between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in these places a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Bulgaria, with the Thracian blocks of Romania, is drawn as today's Bulgaria, and Servia as the Serbian blocks south of the Danube and the Save, Moll's northern border for it; Sofia and Plovdiv have rows of their own, and GeoNames places Salonica, Chalcis, and Thebes in the Central Macedonia and Central Greece blocks.¹⁴¹¹²⁷⁶⁸¹⁸⁶⁴⁰²⁴⁰³⁴⁰⁴
1600	Delhi	Present	Low	Both	Asani names the great Chishti shaykhs of fourteenth-century Delhi, Nizam al-Din Awliya (1238 to 1325) and Nasir al-Din Mahmud (1276 to 1356), and writes that the Madrasa-i Rahimiyya in Delhi began to enjoy widespread fame as a center of Sunni scholarship in the eighteenth century. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Delhi a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. 1500 is drawn from the Delhi sultanate's monuments, 1700 with the Mughal lands, and 1800 from the eighteenth century, which contains it.³³⁶
1600	Edirne	Present	Medium	Both	Eyice writes in the architecture section of the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's Edirne entry that the Selimiye Mosque was built in Edirne for Selim II between 1568 and 1574, within 30 years of the step, and Gökbilgin, in the same entry's history section, that the city, which had 144 Muslim and 19 Christian quarters and eight Jewish congregations in 1528, had 147 quarters in 1609. Present, not prevalent, because the figures are for the city, not the whole block; medium because the source describes the block through its city, which GeoNames places in the Edirne block.⁴⁰⁵¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1600	Fatehpur Sikri	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO writes that the Mughal emperor Akbar (reigned 1556 to 1605) built Fatehpur Sikri, in Agra District, between 1571 and 1573, and that its Jama Masjid, completed in 1571 to 1572, holds the tomb of the Sufi Salim Chishti, completed in 1580 to 1581 and further embellished under Jahangir in 1606, six years after this step; Asani writes that Akbar had his new capital built near Salim Chishti's khanqah, a Sufi lodge. Medium because one town stands for the Uttar Pradesh block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it.⁴⁰⁶³³⁶⁴⁰⁷
1600	Kabardia	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Russians, defeated in 1594 on the Sulaq River, returned in 1604 and were again heavily defeated, so that the religious competition between Christianity and Islam in Kabardia ended with a complete Muslim victory, and Kabardia, strategically the most important area of the northern Caucasus, became a solid Muslim bastion; 1604 falls within 30 years of the step. The block is Kabardino-Balkaria, whose name carries Kabardia's, by this site's reading, as the Ajaria row reads the Adzhars onto Ajaria from the same chapter. Medium because the source describes Kabardia broadly and gives no count.²⁰²
1600	Mount Lebanon	Present	Medium	Both	Carlson writes that the Ottoman tax registers show the Muslims of sixteenth-century Syria an overwhelming majority in the countryside, but also that Arabic geographical texts give little space to Mount Lebanon, "which continued to have a substantial Maronite Christian population to the present", and he names Ismaili castles there in Ibn Jubayr's day. That account of the part decides for it, so his majority for the region is not read down to the block, which is drawn as present. Medium because the source places Muslims across Syria but gives no figure for this block.¹³⁰
1600	North Macedonia, Epirus, and Greek Macedonia and Thrace	Present	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 18.6 percent Muslim, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, for about 1910, writes that about one-third of the people of Turkey's European provinces were Muslim and finds many Muslim Albanians among the Greek-speaking people of Epiros; no source in hand records an end of the Muslim communities there between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in these places a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are those of North Macedonia, Epirus, and Greek Macedonia and Thrace that the rows for 1900 draw; Skopje, Debar, Ohrid, Salonica, and Thessaly have rows of their own; 1700 is drawn from Gordon's Greece, 1800 with European Turkey, and 1850 with European Turkey from the 1860 Britannica.¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶¹⁴²
1600	Patras (Balyabadra)	Present	Low	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the Ottomans took Patras in 1446, and that in the Ottoman period it was an important town, known for its currants, with a Muslim population beside the Greeks; the row reads the Ottoman period as a span that contains this step. Low because the source gives the span no closing year and the town is drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁴⁵¹⁷¹
1600	Skopje	Present	Medium	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Skopje's mosques, madrasas, and other buildings of the 15th to 17th centuries show it becoming an Ottoman city, and that it saw dense settlement in those centuries; that in 1569 Muslims lived in fifty-seven of its sixty-seven quarters, and by the middle of the sixteenth century made up 76 percent of its people; and that a visitor of 1573 found the Hünkâr Mosque there. The visit of 1573 falls within 30 years of the step, and the entry's 15th to 17th centuries contain it; the count of 1569 falls 31 years before it. Present, not prevalent, because the figures are more than ten years from the step; medium because the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1600	Sofia and Plovdiv	Present	Medium	Both	Şahin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1570 Sofia had forty-one quarters, twenty-three of them Muslim, fourteen Christian, and four Jewish, and that toward the end of the sixteenth century it had 1,017 Muslim households; Kiel writes that in 1576 Plovdiv (Filibe) had thirty-three Muslim, five Christian, one Jewish, and one Roma quarter, and that its Muslims stayed at about 800 households to 1610. Medium because the figures are for two cities, drawn as the blocks that hold them.¹⁶⁷¹⁴⁸¹⁶⁸¹⁴⁹
1600	Syria, with Jerusalem	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Carlson writes that the Ottoman tax registers show that in the sixteenth century the Muslim population of Syria, the region medieval Arabic geographers defined from the Euphrates to al-Arish and from the Arabian desert to the Mediterranean, formed an overwhelming majority in the countryside and a large majority in most towns and cities, and that the Syria those registers record was a Muslim land, in population as well as in government. He notes towns where Christians remained many, such as al-Karak, where they outnumbered Muslims two to one in the middle of the century; a town's figure decides for its block only where the town makes up the block, so the Karak block stays in the region's majority. He writes that he found no edition or analysis of the registers of the province of Tripoli, so the blocks that hold places he puts in that province, Tripoli and al-Qusayr, are drawn in a row of their own, and that Mount Lebanon continued to have a substantial Maronite Christian population, so that block too has a row of its own. Carlson names the Druze, the Ismailis, the Twelver Shiites, and another Shii community beside the Sunnis who shared the land. Medium because the statement covers the whole region, and this step is the last year of the century it speaks of.¹³⁰
1600	The Crimean Khanate	Present	Low	Both	Fisher writes that Mengli Giray I (khan to 1515) made the Crimean Khanate a Sunni Muslim cultural center, and Gordon's geography of 1699 that the Crim Tartars were for the most part followers of Islam; no source in hand dates Islam in the Crimea within 30 years of this step. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in the Crimea a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.¹⁹³⁶⁸
1600	The Morea	Present	Medium	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that 9 percent of the Morea's people were Muslim in 1521, and that the Muslim share, calculated at 11 percent in 1583, rose to 26 percent in 1642. Medium because the figure is for the Morea, drawn as the Peloponnese block.¹⁴⁵
1600	The province of Tripoli (Tripoli and al-Qusayr)	Present	Medium	Both	Carlson writes that after the Ottoman conquest the bulk of Syria was divided between provincial governments based in Aleppo, Tripoli, and Damascus, that the town of al-Qusayr southwest of Hims was in the province of Tripoli, and that he could not consult the Ottoman tax registers from Tripoli; his statement that the registers show Syria's Muslims an overwhelming majority in the sixteenth century therefore does not rest on this province's records, so its majority is not read down to these blocks, which are drawn as present. The blocks are those that hold Tripoli and al-Qusayr, as GeoNames places them; no source in hand bounds the province further. Medium because the source places Muslims across Syria but gives no figure for these blocks.¹³⁰⁴¹⁰⁴¹¹
1600	Turkish Thrace beyond Edirne	Present	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 18.6 percent Muslim, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica, for about 1910, writes that about one-third of the people of Turkey's European provinces, Adrianople among them, were Muslim. No source in hand records an end of the Muslim communities of these blocks between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Thrace a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Edirne has a row of its own at this step, from records of its own city near 1600.¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶
1600 to 1700	Aceh	Present	High	Both	Johns writes that Aceh came to prominence in the 1520s, peaked under Sultan Iskandar Muda (1607 to 1636), dominated the straits of Malacca for most of the seventeenth century, and left the region's first surviving works of Islamic scholarship; its minister Shams al-Din (1600 to 1630) bore the title Shaikh al-Islam.¹⁸¹
1600 to 1700	Montenegro	Present	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 18.6 percent Muslim, drawn across the peninsula at 1500, Montenegro among it; the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in a volume dated 1810, writes that half of the Turkish state were Muslim Turks, drawn across European Turkey at 1800, Montenegro among it. The row reads two records of Muslims in Montenegro, each for a larger area that contains it, more than a century apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, as the rows for Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia, and Epirus read the same kind of pair at 1600. Plav has a row of its own.¹⁴¹³⁸¹⁸⁷
1600 to 1700	The Dobrudja	Present	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the households in the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 for the Balkan peninsula as 18.6 percent Muslim, a count read at 1500 for the Dobrudja, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica writes that when the Dobrudja was given to Rumania in 1878 it was peopled by Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews, and others; its article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, and no source in hand records an end of the Muslim communities there between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in the Dobrudja a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. 1800 is drawn with European Turkey.¹⁴¹¹⁴⁷¹⁸⁶
1600 to 1800	Timbuktu	Present	High	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that after the Moroccan invasion of 1591 Timbuktu's scholars led the resistance, that the two chief Arabic chronicles of West Africa were written there in the middle of the seventeenth century, that Moroccan rule ended in 1737, and that the Kunta leader Sidi al-Mukhtar (1728 to 1811) extended his patronage over the town. No source found covers it at the later steps.³³⁵³⁸⁸
1600 to 1850	Albania	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania writes that the great majority of the Albanians of its own day (it reports events up to 1908), probably more than three- fifths, were Muslims, and that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries. The row reads the conversion as placing Muslims in Albania at 1600 and 1700, the steps those centuries contain, and the same community, from its conversion to the article's day, as carrying 1800 and 1850; the 1900 step has a row of its own. Present because the article dates the change only by centuries and gives its majority only for its own day; medium because it describes Albania broadly.¹⁴²
1600 to 1850	Astrakhan	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the khanate of Astrakhan on the Lower Volga, one of the Muslim remnants of the Golden Horde, was conquered and annexed by Muscovy in 1556, and Russia's census of 1897 counted 307,239 Muslims in Astrakhan province; no source in hand records an end of Astrakhan's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Astrakhan a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, drawn as the block that holds the town, as GeoNames places it.²⁰²⁷⁵⁷⁷
1600 to 1850	Dibra, and Plava and Gusinye (the 1911 Britannica's Albania)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania names Dibra among Albania's principal towns and draws Albania's northern frontier so as to leave Plava and Gusinye on its side, and writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries and that most Albanians were Muslims in its own day. The row reads the conversion as placing Muslims in these blocks at 1600 and 1700, the steps those centuries contain, and the same community, from its conversion to the article's day, as carrying 1800 and 1850, as the Albania row does. Present because the article dates the change only by centuries; medium because it describes Albania broadly.¹⁴²¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹
1600 to 1850	Kosovo (the 1911 Britannica's north-eastern Albania)	Present	Medium	Both	Aktepe writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in the 1480s the villages around Prizren had no Muslims, that in the second half of the sixteenth century the Muslim population of the sanjak of Vulçıtrın began to grow, and that between 1582 and 1591 the Muslim share of the towns had reached 90 percent in Peja, 80 in Vushtrri, 60 in Prishtina, 56 in Prizren, 37 in Novo Brdo, 21 in Trepča, and 15 in Janjevo; the same entry lists the Sinan Pasha Mosque as the largest seventeenth-century mosque in Prizren. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania, which takes in north-eastern Albania in the vilayet of Kossovo, writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries and that most Albanians were Muslims in its own day; the row reads that community, from its conversion to the article's day, as carrying 1700 to 1850, as the Albania row does. Present, not prevalent, because the figures are for towns, not the whole block, and the article gives its majority only for its own day; medium because the sources describe the block through its main towns and broadly.⁴¹²¹⁴²¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵
1600 to 1850	Larissa (Yenişehir), in Thessaly	Present	Medium	Both	Kiel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in the Ottoman period (1386 to 1881) Yenişehir (Larissa) had more than fifty mosques, some important madrasas, and many dervish lodges, and was among the ten largest cities of the empire in Europe; that in 1668 Evliya Çelebi counted seventy-one prayer halls there, twenty-two of them mosques; that in 1791 two geographers described it as a large city of Turks, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, the Turks more numerous than all the others; that in 1801 a traveler counted twenty-six mosques; and that, according to the yearbook of the province of Yanya for 1871, the district of Yenişehir had 14,934 Muslim and 36,993 Christian men, Jews included, with 147 mosques and prayer halls. The row reads the Ottoman period, a span that contains these steps, as carrying them. Medium because the figures are for one city and one district, drawn as the Thessaly block.¹⁵³¹⁵⁴
1600 to 1850	Ohrid	Present	Medium	Both	Aruçi writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Ohrid had 349 Christian and 93 Muslim households in the first half of the sixteenth century, that its Muslim population grew between 1566 and 1582, and that the register of 1583 records 263 Christian and 270 Muslim households in its twenty-five quarters; that in 1670 Evliya Çelebi counted 300 Muslim and 160 Christian households and seventeen mosques and prayer halls in the lower town; and that in the second half of the eighteenth century the Halveti sheikh Mehmed Hayati founded Ohrid's first Halveti lodge, which has kept its importance to this day. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania names Ochrida among Albania's towns and writes that the conversion of the Christian population to Islam appears to have taken place during the 16th and 17th centuries. The row reads the count of 1670, 30 years before 1700, as placing the community at that step, the lodge's founding in the second half of the eighteenth century as reaching 1800, and the lodge, important to the entry's own day, as carrying the community on to 1850. Present, not prevalent, because the counts are for the town, not the whole block, and none falls within 10 years of a step; medium because the sources describe the block through its town.¹⁵²¹⁴²¹⁷⁷
1600 to 1900	Java (Banten, Ceribon, Demak, Mataram, and Surabaya)	Present	Medium	Both	Johns names Banten, Ceribon, Demak, and Surabaya among the Muslim states that grew after 1511, writes that Sultan Agung of Mataram, in Central Java, brought the Islamic calendar into Java in 1633 and that his successor fought the north coast's Muslim communities in the 1660s, and cites an 1898 article on Javanese Muslims' request to the Dutch for Ottoman citizenship. Medium because the sources describe Java broadly and few points fall near 1800 and 1850.¹⁸¹⁴¹³⁴¹⁴
1600 to 1900	Sulu (the southern islands of the Philippines)	Present	Low	Both	Johns writes that the Spanish established their rule in the Philippines in the second half of the sixteenth century, and Neill and Mullins that in three and a half centuries of Spanish rule almost the whole population was brought into the Catholic church, "though a Muslim minority remained in the southern islands". Johns names a Muslim grave near Jolo, dated 1310, at which a number of the sultans of Sulu were crowned. Low because the "southern islands" are broad: the row takes only the Sulu block, where Jolo lies, and leaves Mindanao, which no source places at these steps.⁹⁸¹⁸¹⁴¹⁵
1700	Arabia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Arabia was partly subject to the Turks and partly to the Persians, but that its most considerable part was governed by its own princes and states, and that its people were generally devoted to the Muslim religion, a word for most of the people, which this site reads as a statement of a majority. A statement for a larger area counts for the places inside it, so the row draws the whole peninsula as Moll divides it, into Arabia Felix, Deserta, and Petraea, with the Hijaz, Sa'da, and Oman. Medium because the source describes the peninsula broadly and gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Azerbaijan (Arran and Shirvan)	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that after the Safavids conquered Derbent and Shirvan in 1538 the Twelver Shii rite of the Safavid rulers became the dominant form of Islam in Azerbaijan, and next date Muslims there when the Naqshbandi order reappeared in the province of Shirvan in the 1820s. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Azerbaijan a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Nakhchivan, which Moll's geography of 1701 names among the towns of Turcomania, is drawn at this step with Turcomania.²⁰²
1700	Bosnia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Lampe writes that it took more than a hundred years after the Ottoman conquest for Muslims to become an absolute majority in Bosnia, that the Habsburg-Ottoman war of 1683 to 1699 sent a flood of Muslim refugees, mainly converted Slavs, into Bosnia, and that by the end of the eighteenth century the Muslims were probably no longer in the majority. The row reads the majority as running between those two points, a span that contains this step. Medium because neither end is dated to a year and the source describes Bosnia broadly.¹⁴³
1700	Bulgaria, Servia, Romania (Thrace), Salonica, and Central Greece	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Bulgaria, once ruled by its own kings and now by the Turks, was inhabited by Greek Christians as well as Turks and Jews; that in Servia the Greeks and Jews, who managed the trade, lived in the cities and the Turks in the burghs and fortresses; that Salonica was inhabited by Christians and Jews as well as Turks, who had taken the churches of St. Mary, St. Demetrius, St. Sophia, and St. Gabriel for mosques; that at Negropont, which stands where ancient Chalcis stood, the Turks and Jews lived within the walls and the Christians in the suburbs; and that at Thebes, where most of the 3,000 or 4,000 people were Christians, the Turks had two mosques. Gordon's geography of 1699 counts Christians, Jews, and Muslims among the people of the provinces he calls Danubian, Romania, Bulgaria, and Servia among them, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. The blocks follow Moll's bounds, by this site's reading, as the Jewish layer reads them: Servia lies south of the Danube and the Save, which he gives as its northern border, so the Serbian blocks north of them are left out; Bulgaria lies north of the ridge of mountains that parts it from Romania, the old Thrace, and the Thracian blocks of today's Bulgaria and Turkey are drawn from Gordon's Romania; Blagoevgrad is drawn with Gordon's Macedonia, and Edirne has a row of its own. GeoNames places Salonica, Chalcis, and Thebes in the Central Macedonia and Central Greece blocks. Medium because the sources name countries and towns and give no count.¹²⁷⁶⁸¹⁸⁶⁴⁰²⁴⁰³⁴⁰⁴
1700	Bundu and Futa Jalon	Present	Low	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that movements led by Muslim scholars, who adopted the title al-imam, seized power in Bundu, in present-day Senegal, about 1700, and in Futa Jalon, in present-day Guinea, about 1725. Low because Futa Jalon's date falls 25 years after the step, and each gazetteer point places a region in a single block.³³⁵⁴¹⁶⁴¹⁷
1700	Cambodia	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in the peninsula of India beyond the Ganges, wherever Islam prevailed, it was generally mixed with many rites of other religions, as particularly in Cambodia, which he places on the river Menan; the words that follow, on the city's buildings, are damaged in the scan, but the sentence the row rests on is legible. Gordon names Cambodia as a city on the river Menan, which no gazetteer in hand places; the row reads the name for the country that shares it, by this site's reading, since a period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith, as the Buddhism layer reads the same chapter. Present because the sentence ties "prevails" to no number of people: it describes how Islam was practiced wherever it prevailed. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	China (its sixteen provinces)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in some parts of China the teaching of Muhammad was followed. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are those of the sixteen provinces into which Gordon divides China, Leaotung (Liaoning) among them, by this site's reading, as the Christian and Buddhist layers read the same chapter, less Gansu and Jiangsu, which have rows of their own at this step. Present because the words do not state a majority; medium because the source names no province and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Cyprus	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of Cyprus were Greeks and Turks, the Greeks professing Christianity by the teachings of the Greek church, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. Medium because the source describes the island broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹⁸⁶
1700	Dagestan	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that in the middle of the sixteenth century Sunni Islam of the Shafi'i rite was solidly established in Dagestan, and that the Naqshbandi movement that began in Chechnya in 1785 spread to northern Dagestan. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Dagestan a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.²⁰²
1700	Diarbeck (Mesopotamia)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in Diarbeck, his name for Mesopotamia, the Turks held a large fountain at Ourfa (Urfa), which they called Abraham's Fountain, in such veneration that its banks were covered with fine carpets, and gives the opinion of the modern Arabs on a great mound near Bagdat; Moll's of 1701 writes that the merchants who came to Mosul, a considerable mart town of Diarbeck, were more especially Arabs and Kurds, and that near Nineveh, in the part of Diarbeck called Kurdistan, the Turks held the monument of Jonah in very great veneration. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks, and the Arabs and Kurds of these lands, as Muslim. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named region draws that region, for every faith; the blocks are Diarbeck as the Christian layer reads the same pages of Gordon, less Najaf and Urfa, which have rows of their own. GeoNames places Mosul in the Ninawa block and Urfa in the Sanliurfa block. Medium because the sources describe the region broadly and give no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷¹⁸⁶¹⁶⁵¹¹³
1700	Eastern Anatolia	Present	Low	Both	O'Sullivan cites Ottoman records for 1520 to 1535 that put the population of Anatolia, a region that contains these blocks, at more than 92 percent Muslim, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey gives, for 1896, 10,030,000 Muslims among 13,241,000 people in Armenia, Kurdistan, and Asia Minor, which also contain them; no source in hand records an end of the Muslim communities of these blocks between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in eastern Anatolia a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are those east and south of Natolia that the 1896 figure covers, by this site's reading, beyond Van, Urfa, Gordon's Diarbeck, and Turcomania, which have rows of their own at this step; 1800 is drawn with Asiatic Turkey.¹²⁴¹⁸⁶
1700	Edirne	Present	Medium	Both	Gökbilgin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1528 the city had 144 Muslim and 19 Christian quarters and eight Jewish congregations, and that the count of 1703 recorded 3,797 houses and 5,329 heads of household in sixty-five quarters, from which, citing Ergenç, the city's people are estimated at some 30,000 to 40,000, 12 percent of them non-Muslims. Present, not prevalent, because the figures are for the city, not the whole block; medium because the source describes the block through its city.¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1700	Georgia (Kartli and Kakheti)	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the chiefest part of the people of Georgia, which he divides into the provinces of Gaguetia and Carduel, professed the Christian religion, and that the rest followed Islam, which the king of Persia favored. The blocks are those of Kakheti and Kartli, by this site's reading of the two provinces' names. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Hungary	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the prevailing religion of Hungary was that of the Church of Rome, especially since the recent conquests of the emperor's armies, that next to it came the teachings of Luther and Calvin, and that most sorts of Christians were also found there, as well as many Jews and not a few Muslims. The Encyclopaedia Judaica writes that most of Hungary had come under Habsburg rule by the beginning of the 18th century. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. Medium because Gordon describes the country broadly and gives no count; neither source says that the Habsburg reconquest moved Hungary's Muslims.⁶⁸¹⁷⁰
1700	Macedonia, Epirus, and Attica (Gordon's Greece)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Greece, which he divides into Macedonia, Albania, Epirus, Thessaly, Achaia, and the Morea, that the languages in use there were Turkish and vulgar Greek, the first being the Turks' and the other the Christians', and under religion names Islam and writes that Christianity, for its number of professors, far more prevailed; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are Gordon's Macedonia and Epirus as the Christian layer reads the same passage, with the Blagoevgrad block in Macedonia, and Attica, in his Achaia. For Athens the two period sources differ: Gordon writes that the temple of Minerva there was now a Turkish mosque, while Moll's geography of 1701 writes of the town's five mosques in the past tense, after the Venetian capture of 1687; neither says that the capture moved the town's Muslims, so Attica is drawn with the rest of Gordon's Greece. Albania, Ohrid, Debar, Salonica, Thessaly, and Central Greece have rows of their own; Skopje's row for this step stays at low, since its own entry says that many of its people left after the Austrian occupation of 1689, within 30 years before Gordon wrote; and the Morea is blank at this step for the reason the gap list gives. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹⁸⁶¹²⁷
1700	Natolia (Asia Minor)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the inhabitants of Natolia, the former Asia Minor, were chiefly Turks and Greeks, and that its established religion was Islam, with people of all professions tolerated; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, so the passage places Muslims across Natolia, though, since it names two peoples rather than faiths, it is not read as a majority by faith. The blocks are Asia Minor west of the eastern highlands, which Gordon treats apart as Turcomania and Diarbeck, by this site's reading of his bounds; Smyrna (Izmir) has a row of its own at this step. Medium because the source describes Natolia broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹⁸⁶
1700	Skopje	Present	Low	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Skopje's mosques, madrasas, and other buildings of the 15th to 17th centuries show it becoming an Ottoman city, and that in the middle of the seventeenth century Evliya Çelebi described it as a wholly Muslim city with forty-five mosques. The row reads the span of the 15th to 17th centuries as carrying 1700; the entry adds that after the Austrian occupation of 1689 many of its people left and the city lost most of its population. Gordon's geography of 1699, which places Turks in his Greece, Macedonia among its parts, writes within 30 years after that change of rule, which the entry says moved the city's people. Low for that reason; the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1700	Smyrna and Urfa	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Smyrna was inhabited by a great number of Turks, as well as by Greeks, Armenians, Jews, and the consuls of several European nations, and that Pergamum was inhabited by the Turks and some few Christian families; Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that at Ourfa (Urfa) a large fountain stocked with fish, which the Turks called Abraham's Fountain, was held in such veneration among them that its banks were covered with fine carpets. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. Medium because the sources name towns and give no count, drawn as the blocks that hold Smyrna and Urfa, as GeoNames places them.¹²⁷⁶⁸¹⁸⁶⁴¹⁸¹¹³
1700	Southwestern Georgia (the Adzhars)	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Turks conquered southwestern Georgia in 1627 and that a part of its people embraced Islam, and that the descendants of these Georgian Muslims, the Adzhars, numbered 100,000 to 150,000 late in the twentieth century. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Ajaria a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, as it does for Kerala's Mappilas, and because the source names southwestern Georgia only broadly, drawn as Ajaria, the land that takes its name from the Adzhars, by this site's reading. 1600 is not drawn, since the conversion came after it; 1800 is drawn with Asiatic Turkey, 1850 with Anatolia, and 1900 in a row of its own.²⁰²
1700	Syria beyond Damascus, Aleppo, and Jerusalem	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Syria, which he divides into Syria proper, Phoenicia, and Palestine, had Islam as its established religion; praises its people's frequent and earnest prayer, to which the muezzins call them; writes that many Jews and various sorts of Christians, Maronites among them, were dispersed over all the country, intermixed with the Turks; and writes that the people of Palestine were Christians, Jews, and Muslims. The blocks are greater Syria, by this site's reading of Gordon's three parts, with Hatay, read with the province of Aleppo, and Mount Lebanon, within his Phoenicia; Damascus, Aleppo, and Jerusalem have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Tamil Nadu	Present	Medium	Both	Asani writes that in Tamil Nadu Muslim authors such as Umaru Pulavar (died 1703) told the life of Muhammad in verse, using the purana, a genre conventionally used to recount the deeds of Hindu deities, and the conventions of Tamil literature. Medium because the source names one author and the modern state, not a place within it.³³⁶
1700	The Crimea (the Crim Tartars)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Crim Tartars were for the most part zealous followers of Islam, apart from some who kept other religions, and that many Christians, especially Greeks and Armenians, and a considerable number of Roman Catholics lived among them; "for the most part" is a phrase this map counts as stating a majority, read here for the peninsula's people, among whom he names the Christians. Fisher writes that the Crimean Khanate held all of the peninsula except its southern and western coast, an Ottoman province after 1475, and that Mengli Giray I (khan to 1515) made it a Sunni Muslim cultural center. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹⁹³
1700	The Mughal empire	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of the inhabitants of the Mughal empire followed religions other than Islam, among them the Banians and the Parsis, and that Islam came next to them; he names the kingdoms of Cambaia (Gujarat) and Bengal and the imperial city of Agra in the empire, and describes the Deccan, Golconda, and Bisnagar apart as the peninsula within the Ganges. The blocks are Gordon's empire, by this site's reading of his bounds, the same that the Hindu and Jewish layers use at this step: Sind, the Indian Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, and Kashmir, with the Punjab of Pakistan, Uttar Pradesh, and Bengal, which have rows of their own at this step. No passage of Gordon's saved places the hill and forest blocks from Himachal Pradesh to Odisha in his empire; Moll's geography of 1701 names Naugracut, whose chief city stood near the head of the Ravi, among the empire's northern kingdoms, a kingdom not yet placed on today's blocks. Medium because the source describes the empire broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The peninsula of India within the Ganges	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the inhabitants of the peninsula of India within the Ganges, whose kingdoms he names as the Deccan, Golconda, and Bisnagar, were generally Muslims, especially those who lived near the sea coasts, but that the people of the inland parts followed other religions. His word for most of the people holds for the people near the coasts, and each of these blocks also takes in inland country (the Western Ghats in Kerala and Goa, the Deccan plateau in Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh), so they are drawn as present, as a block that cannot be split between parts with different majorities is drawn elsewhere on this map; Puducherry's small coastal enclaves are drawn as present with them. The inland Telangana block, which by this site's reading holds Golconda, is drawn as present too: the statement that the inland people followed other religions does not say that no Muslims lived there, and the passage places Muslims in the peninsula as a whole; the Hindu layer draws it as present too, neither a majority there. Tamil Nadu has a row of its own. Asani writes that the Qadiri and Shattari Sufi orders accepted land grants in seventeenth-century Bijapur, in the Karnataka block. Medium because the source describes the peninsula broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸³³⁶⁴⁰¹
1700	Turcomania (Armenia Major)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Turcomania, the old Armenia Major, was so called from the Turks, who broke through the Caspian straits and took possession of these provinces, and that the Turkish, Persian, and Armenian tongues were all understood and much used in the Euphratian provinces, Turcomania among them, especially the Turkish; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are Turcomania as the Christian layer reads the same pages at this step, through Moll's bounds of 1701 (Natolia, Georgia, Persia, and Diarbeck around it, with Nakhchivan among its towns). Van, Diarbeck, and the Black Sea slope have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷¹⁸⁶
1700	Van	Present	Low	Both	Kılıç writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in the middle of the seventeenth century the city of Van had about 33,000 Muslims and the sanjak about 85,000, and that the province's yearbook for 1897 to 1898 counted 103,260 Muslims among 169,377 adults in the sanjak and its districts; the entry records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Van a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. 1800 is drawn with Asiatic Turkey, and 1850 with Anatolia.¹⁸⁰
1700 to 1800	Aleppo	Present	Medium	Both	Marcus writes that during Ottoman rule in Syria (1516 to 1918) Aleppo was the administrative capital of a large province, whose affairs Ottoman governors administered with the cooperation of the city's local Muslim elite, and that the city had about 90,000 people in 1800. Medium because the source describes the city's elite rather than its people as a whole; at 1850 and 1900 the city is drawn with the rest of Syria.⁴¹⁹⁴²⁰
1700 to 1800	Damascus	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO writes that the Umayyads set Damascus on its ongoing development as a living Muslim, Arab city, on which each succeeding dynasty has left its mark, and that most of its built heritage dates from after the Ottoman conquest of the early 16th century. The rest of Syria is drawn at 1700 from Gordon's geography of 1699 and at 1800 from two mentions of its Muslims a century or more apart; at 1850 and 1900 the city is drawn with the rest of Syria.³⁴⁵⁴²¹
1700 to 1800	Jerusalem (al-Quds)	Present	Medium	Both	Simon and Fischbach write that Jerusalem, the third holiest city of Islam, remained a minor town of the province of Syria from the Ottoman conquest of 1517 until the nineteenth century. Medium because the Jerusalem block is far larger than the old city, and because the source describes the city at these steps only as an Ottoman town.³⁴⁷⁴²²
1700 to 1800	Lucknow	Present	Medium	Both	Asani writes that the Farangi Mahal in Lucknow developed into a leading religious college after it received substantial support in 1691 from the emperor Aurangzeb, and that it began to enjoy widespread fame as a center of Sunni scholarship in the eighteenth century, a century that contains 1800, when, under the nawabs of Awadh, Lucknow also became the Twelver Shia cultural and educational capital in South Asia. Medium because the row takes all of Uttar Pradesh for one city.³³⁶⁴²³
1700 to 1800	Najaf	Present	Medium	Both	Nasr writes that the Twelver Shia university at Najaf, founded by Muhammad al-Tusi (died 1067 or 1068), survives to this day as the most important and ancient Shia center of learning, and that after the Safavid state was destroyed in 1722 many leading Twelver scholars retired to Najaf in Iraq. Medium because Nasr speaks of the town's scholars; the rest of Iraq is drawn at 1700 with Gordon's and Moll's Diarbeck and at 1800 with Asiatic Turkey, and at 1850 and 1900 Najaf is drawn with the rest of Iraq.³⁸³⁴²⁴
1700 to 1850	Kabardia	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that after the Russian defeat of 1604 Kabardia became a solid Muslim bastion, drawn at 1600, and in the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Terek province, whose district towns include Nalchik, in the Kabardino-Balkaria block, was 52.4 percent Muslim (computed), drawn at 1900. No source in hand records an end of Kabardia's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Kabardia a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.²⁰²²⁰⁴²⁰⁸²¹⁴
1700 to 1900	Crete	Present	Medium	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that after the Ottoman conquest of 1669 Islam spread rapidly on Crete and conversion to Islam also took place among its own people; that in 1821 about 160,000 Muslims and 129,000 Christians lived on the island, and in 1866 60,000 Muslims and 200,000 Christians; and that after attacks that went on until the island joined Greece in 1912, the last of its Muslims left under the exchange agreed with the Treaty of Lausanne. The row reads that community, from the conquest to the exchange, as carrying these steps. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania, which reports events up to 1908, names the Cretan Muslims beside the Bulgarian Pomaks in comparing the customs of the Albanian Muslims. Present because the 1821 figure falls 21 years from 1800, too far to count for a majority; medium because the source describes the island broadly.¹⁴⁵¹⁴²
1700 to 1900	Gansu	Present	Medium	Both	Dillon writes that after Muslim insurrections in Gansu in 1648 and 1649 the Muslim population grew through the eighteenth century, with Sufism taking root in the northwest; that Gansu was the Hui heartland in the rising suppressed in 1873; and that communal violence broke out again in Gansu and neighboring areas in 1894 and 1895. Medium because the eighteenth-century statements speak of the northwest broadly.³⁴³
1700 to 1900	Harar	Present	Medium	Both	UNESCO writes that Harar, a city considered the fourth holy city of Islam, became an independent emirate in the 17th century and was an important trade centre and a location for Islamic learning from the late 16th century to the 19th century, a span that contains these steps, and that it was integrated into Ethiopia in 1887; the walled town numbers 82 mosques and 102 shrines and has a traditionally functioning community today. Medium because one town stands for the block, which holds it, as GeoNames places it.³⁶⁴³⁶⁵
1700 to 1900	Northern Xinjiang	Present	Low	Both	Falkenheim and Hsieh write that the Qing sent loyal Muslims from Gansu to settle in the oases of northern Xinjiang in the 17th and 18th centuries, and Dillon writes that Hui Muslim communities have lived in Xinjiang for well over a century and a half, as a result of the rebellions and upheavals of the late nineteenth century; he traces resistance to Beijing's rule to an insurrection led by Yakub Beg (1820 to 1877). Low because the block takes in all of Xinjiang, while the sources name its northern oases.³⁷²³⁴³
1700 to 1900	The Cape of Good Hope	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande trace South Africa's Muslim communities to developments from the mid-seventeenth century, when the Dutch used the Cape of Good Hope as a place of exile for Indonesian leaders, among them the scholar Shaykh Yusuf, who led excluded groups that kept their faith and passed it on among slaves, convicts, and freed convicts from India and the Indonesian archipelago; in the nineteenth century, they write, many freed African slaves in South Africa turned to Islam. Medium because the source dates the beginning only broadly.³³⁵⁴²⁵
1700 to 1900	The Minangkabau highlands	Present	Medium	Both	Johns writes that as Islam moved inland during the seventeenth century, the highlands of the Minangkabau region, in Sumatra, rich in gold and pepper, became Muslim, and that the region kept a matrilineal social structure alongside a commitment to Islam that was among the staunchest in the archipelago. Medium because the source names the highlands broadly and dates their conversion only to the seventeenth century, of which 1700 is the last year; the later steps rest on his account of the region's lasting commitment to Islam.¹⁸¹
1800	Arabia beyond the Hijaz, Sa'da, and Oman	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for these passages, counts Arabia among the countries of Asia that had adopted Islam; it writes that in Yemen, Hadramaut, and Oman, toward the Indian Ocean, Islam showed a less intolerant face than elsewhere, though some tribes of the interior kept the worship of the heavenly bodies and a tribe of Jews lived among the mountains; that the Arabs kept schools for the poor in their mosques; that the towns of Loheia and Beit el Fakeh grew up around the tombs of Muslim holy men; and that within the last forty years a reformer it calls Abdul Wahheb had carried out a reform of religion in part of central Arabia, where his family held a sovereignty of considerable extent. The blocks are the peninsula, by this site's reading, beyond the Hijaz, Sa'da, and Oman, which have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.³⁸
1800	Asiatic Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for the passage, writes that the Turks had become Muslims by the time they took Constantinople, while the people they ruled were Christians, and that in Turkey the two remain distinct "to this day", half of the state being the Turks and half the people they ruled; it counts Turkey among the countries of Asia that had adopted Islam. The same edition's article on Turkey divides Asiatic Turkey into Natolia (Asia Minor), Diarbec (Mesopotamia), Syria with Judaea, Georgia, Turcomania (Armenia), Irac-Arabia, and Kurdistan, and counts Cyprus among the islands belonging to Turkey. The blocks are those provinces and Cyprus, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same sentences: Asian Turkey with Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin, Ajaria for the Turkish part of Georgia, greater Syria with Mount Lebanon, and Iraq, with Cyprus; Istanbul, Damascus, Aleppo, Jerusalem, and Najaf have rows of their own. The passage gives a half, not a majority; medium because it covers the state as a whole.³⁸¹⁸⁷
1800	Bulgaria beyond Plovdiv (Rumelia and Silistra)	Present	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of late 1830, which recorded males only ("yalnız erkek nüfus tesbit edilmiş") in the provinces of Anadolu, Karaman, Çıldır, Cezâyir-i Bahr-i Sefîd, Rumeli, and Silistre; its Rumeli column, which this site reads as the provinces of Rumeli and Silistre and as covering today's Bulgaria, counts 513,448 Muslims ("İslâm") among 1,369,766 males, 37.5 percent by this site's arithmetic, above the 5 percent at which a census count alone draws a province. The count falls 30 years after 1800. Plovdiv has a row of its own. Medium because the count is for two provinces and their extent is this site's reading.¹⁴¹
1800	Delhi	Present	Medium	Both	Asani writes that the Madrasa-i Rahimiyya in Delhi, founded by Shah Abd ar-Rahim, father of the reformer Shah Wali Allah (1703 to 1762), began to enjoy widespread fame as a center of Sunni scholarship in the eighteenth century, a century that contains this step. Medium because the step rests on a century, not a year.³³⁶
1800	European Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for the passage, writes that the Turks had become Muslims by the time they took Constantinople, while the people they ruled were Christians, and that in Turkey the two remain distinct "to this day", half of the state being the Turks and half the people they ruled; its article on Turkey puts 8,000,000 of the empire's people, usually estimated, it writes, at 18,000,000, in Turkey in Europe and lists its European provinces, Moldavia, Bessarabia, and Wallachia among them, counting Servia only in part. The blocks are European Turkey by this site's reading, the Ottoman lands south of the Danube and the Save with Turkish Thrace, the Dobrudja, and the Aegean islands, and with them Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, drawn as the Wallachian and Moldavian blocks of today's Romania and today's Moldova west of the Dniester, the blocks the Jewish layer reads from the same list; less Mount Athos, which the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece describes as a center of Orthodox monasteries whose privileges the sultans confirmed, and where no source in hand places Muslims; Istanbul, Edirne, Bulgaria, Thessaly, the Morea, Crete, Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo, Ohrid, Debar, and Plav have rows of their own. The passage gives a half, not a majority; medium because it covers the state as a whole.³⁸¹⁸⁷¹⁴⁵
1800	Narea and Tchelga (Abyssinia)	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Abyssinia in a volume dated 1810, whose description of the country follows Bruce's travels (the latest year it names is 1770), writes that the frontier countries of Narea, Ras-el-Feel, Tchelga, and others were wholly inhabited by Muslims, and that their government was usually given to strangers. That account's year, 30 years before 1800, places the community at this step, but is too far from it for a majority. GeoNames places Tchelga as the Ch'ilga district, in the Amhara block, and Narea, by this site's reading, as Limmu-Enarea, in the Oromiya block; Ras-el-Feel is not placed. Medium because the source names the districts and gives no count, drawn as the far larger blocks that hold them.¹³⁸⁴²⁶¹⁸²
1800	Plovdiv (Filibe)	Present	Medium	Both	Kiel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Plovdiv's great mosque, built about 1425, was rebuilt by Abdülhamid I in 1785, and that Papa Konstantin, writing in 1819, divided the city's people into five groups, Turks, Orthodox Christians, Armenians, Paulicians (Catholics), and Jews, with Turks living in eleven of its fifteen quarters; the 1911 Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, so that account places Muslims in the city without showing a majority by faith. Medium because the city is drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁴⁸¹⁸⁶¹⁴⁹
1800	Rangoon	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, gives an account of the Birman empire drawn from the embassy of Michael Symes, sent by the governor general of Bengal, John Shore, and gives no year for it; it writes that the Birmans' principal seaport, Rangoon, held traders from all the countries of the East, who enjoyed the most liberal toleration in matters of religion, and that in the same street could be heard the muezzin calling Muslims to early prayers and the bell of the Portuguese chapel. GeoNames places Rangoon (Yangon) in the Yangon block. Medium because the source names one town, drawn as the block that holds it.³⁸¹⁹²
1800	The Crimea	Present	Medium	Both	Fisher writes that Russia annexed the Crimean Khanate in 1783, after nine years of "independence" in what he calls a Muslim, Tatar society. Medium because the step rests on that society as it stood at the annexation, 17 years earlier.¹⁹³
1800	The Hijaz (Mecca and Medina)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopedia of Religion's entry on Southeast Asia tells of networks of religious teachers binding the Muslim world together in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, a span that contains 1800, and of Sumatran scholars in Arabia when the Wahhabis took Mecca in 1803. Medium because the step rests on scholars' journeys rather than on accounts of the Hijaz itself; 1850 has a row of its own.¹⁸¹³⁴⁰³⁴¹
1800	The Malabar coast	Present	Medium	Both	Johnston, Chief Justice of Ceylon, writes in his letter, published in 1827, that in 1806 he submitted a plan for inducing the Muslim capitalists of the coasts of Malabar, Coromandel, and Malacca to make Ceylon the emporium of their trade, and that he made his inquiry into the ancient commercial establishments of the Muslims on the coasts of India and Ceylon with the help of Muslim priests and merchants of Ceylon and of the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. GeoNames places the Malabar Coast in Kerala. Medium because the source names the coast broadly, drawn as the Kerala block.²⁸³⁴²⁷
1800	The Malays of the Malay Peninsula	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense, writes that the Malays, among the peoples and states of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, differ from its other states only in that the Arabs converted them to Islam. The blocks are the Malay states of the Malay Peninsula, by this site's reading: the peninsular states of Malaysia and the Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala, Narathiwat, and Satun. Medium because the source describes the people broadly and names no place within the peninsula.³⁸
1800	The Morea	Present	Medium	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that when Venice took the Morea between 1684 and 1686 the Muslim presence there was removed; that after the Ottomans retook it in 1715 some Muslims returned and Islamic buildings were begun again; that after a Russian occupation in 1770 Ottoman rule was established again in 1779, with Tripolitsa, where Muslims were the majority, as the provincial seat; and that after the revolt began in 1821, 21 years after this step, the Muslims of Tripolitsa were massacred and the rebels who took the Morea killed more than half of its Muslims, about 25,000 people. The row reads the community, from its return after 1715 to 1821, as present at 1800; 1700, when Venice held the Morea, and 1850, after the entry's account of the end of the Morea's Muslims following 1827, are not drawn. Medium because the source describes the Morea broadly, drawn as the Peloponnese block.¹⁴⁵
1800	Yunnan	Present	Low	Both	Dillon writes that under the Ming (1368 to 1644) Chinese-speaking Muslims settled as a permanent part of Chinese society, also in Yunnan, and that in 1855 Han and Hui miners in Yunnan came into conflict over mineral rights. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Yunnan a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. 1700 is drawn with Gordon's China.³⁴³
1800 to 1850	Bosnia	Present	Medium	Both	Lampe writes that in the eighteenth century there was strong growth in Bosnia's Christian population, so that by the end of the century the Muslims were probably no longer in the majority, and he describes Bosnian Muslims and their landowners in the final decades of Ottoman rule. Present because the source states no Muslim majority at these steps; medium because it describes Bosnia broadly.¹⁴³
1800 to 1850	Ceylon	Present	Medium	Both	Johnston, Chief Justice of Ceylon, writes in his letter, published in 1827, that the island's Muslim population then numbered about seventy thousand people, distributed in every part of the country, that its traders still had establishments at Puttalam, Colombo, Barbareen, and Galle, and that he consulted their chiefs and priests in 1806, 1807, 1811, and 1815. The letter's own day falls within 30 years of both steps. Medium because the source describes the island as a whole.²⁸³
1800 to 1850	Chechnya	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the first Naqshbandi jihad against the Russians, led by the Chechen Imam Mansur Ushurma, began in Chechnya in 1785, and that during his rule, which ended with his capture in 1791, Islam became deeply rooted in Chechnya, formerly only about one-half Muslim. The mountaineers' resistance under the imams of Dagestan lasted from 1824 to 1859, and in the nineteenth century classical Arabic became the spoken intertribal language of Dagestan and Chechnya; the Qadiri order appeared in the Chechen country in the 1860s, and both orders took part in the revolt of 1877 to 1878 in Dagestan and Chechnya. Medium because Mansur's rule ended nine years before 1800.²⁰²
1800 to 1850	Edirne	Present	Medium	Both	Gökbilgin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the city became relatively deserted from the second half of the eighteenth century, that most of its Muslims left during the Ottoman-Russian war of 1828 to 1829, 28 years after 1800, and that in the 1870s it had 68,661 people, 19,576 of them Muslims and 48,546 Christians. Medium because the source describes the block through its city.¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1800 to 1850	Hindostan	Present	Medium	Both	For 1800, the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for these passages, bounds Hindoostan from the Panjab and the course of the Indus on the west to the lower Brahmaputra and Chittagong on the east, and from Tartary to Cape Comorin; it counts Hindoostan among the countries of Asia that had adopted Islam, writes that it held 10,000,000 Muslims and that Muslims were only one in ten of its people, and the same edition's article on Hindostan writes that in the provinces under British rule both Hindus and Muslims had been left free to practice their religion. For 1850, the eighth edition's article on Hindustan, in a volume dated 1856, writes that the great division of the people was into Hindus and Muslims, in the proportion of about seven to one. The blocks are those of today's India and Pakistan inside both articles' bounds, by this site's reading; the Punjab of Pakistan, Bengal, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu have rows of their own at both steps, and Delhi and Uttar Pradesh at 1800. The shares are of a minority and are read only as placing Muslims; medium because the statements cover the country as a whole.³⁸²⁸⁶¹⁹⁰
1800 to 1850	Palembang	Present	Low	Both	Johns writes that an expatriate scholar, Abd al-Samad of Palembang, compiled a four-volume abridgement of al-Ghazali's The revivification of the religious sciences around 1780, in Ta'if, in Arabia, a date within 30 years of 1800; low at 1800 because the source names Palembang only in a scholar's name. He also writes that a 1909 article from Palembang told how the journal Al-manar had inspired the Muslims of the region to form associations to support Islamic schools, drawn at 1900; the row reads the two mentions of Palembang's Muslims, a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying 1850, low for that reason. GeoNames places Palembang in the Sumatera Selatan block.¹⁸¹⁴²⁸
1800 to 1850	Shirvan and Dagestan	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the first Naqshbandi jihad against the Russians, begun in 1785, spread to northern Dagestan; that the order reappeared in the 1820s in the province of Shirvan, in eastern Transcaucasia; and that the mountaineers' resistance to Russia, led last by Shamil, lasted from 1824 to 1859. Medium because the source dates nothing in Azerbaijan between 1538 and the 1820s, and places Shirvan only in eastern Transcaucasia; by this site's reading it lies in today's Azerbaijan block.²⁰²³⁴²
1800 to 1850	The Coromandel coast	Present	Medium	Both	Johnston, Chief Justice of Ceylon, writes in his letter, published in 1827, that in 1806 he submitted a plan for inducing the Muslim capitalists of the coasts of Malabar, Coromandel, and Malacca to make Ceylon the emporium of their trade, and that he made his inquiry into the ancient commercial establishments of the Muslims on the coasts of India and Ceylon with the help of Muslim priests and merchants of Ceylon and of the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. He also describes, in the letter's own day, Muslim mariners and traders of Arab descent who trade in small vessels between the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel and Ceylon; the letter's year falls within 30 years of 1850. GeoNames' point for the Coromandel Coast lies just off Natural Earth's coastline, nearest the Tamil Nadu block, which the row takes for the coast. Medium because the source names the coast broadly.²⁸³⁴²⁹
1800 to 1900	Aceh	Present	Low	Both	Johns writes that the scholar al-Raniri, in Aceh between 1637 and 1642, wrote in Malay the Bustan al-Salatin, a universal history that includes a book on the history of Aceh, and writes of a revolt in Aceh in late 1953, a region he describes as known for the strength of its Islamic traditions. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Aceh a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹⁸¹
1800 to 1900	Guangzhou	Present	Low	Both	Chaffee writes that stelae of the fourteenth century and later date China's most ancient mosques, Guangzhou's among them, to the Tang, while most scholars hold that none predates the Song, and that in Ming and Qing accounts Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas built two mosques at Guangzhou and was buried there; Frankel writes that in recent decades Guangzhou's Huaisheng Mosque and Sa'd's tomb have emerged as focal points for Muslim newcomers, as symbols of the city's ancient Islamic heritage. No source in hand records an end of the city's Muslim community after the fourteenth century. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Guangzhou a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason, drawn as the block that holds the city, as GeoNames places it. 1700 is drawn with Gordon's China.³²⁴³²⁵³²⁶
1800 to 1900	Oman	Present	Medium	Both	Jones writes that after 711 most Ibadi Muslims left Basra for remote lands, Oman among them, and that in Oman they survived in numbers with a tradition going back unbroken to Basra. Levtzion and Chande describe Oman's rising power at the end of the seventeenth century and its sultan's move to Zanzibar in the 1830s. Medium because the sources give few dates between.³²⁷³²⁸³³⁵
1800 to 1900	Shaanxi	Present	Low	Both	Dillon writes that under the Ming (1368 to 1644) Chinese-speaking Muslims settled as a permanent part of Chinese society, notably in Gansu and Shaanxi, where Hu Dengzhou (1522 to 1597) played a key role in establishing Muslim education, and he names Shaanxi among the five provinces and regions of northwest China with significant Muslim populations that have held colloquia on Islamic issues since 1979. No source in hand records an end of the community in Shaanxi itself. In the same passage on the Hui rising of the second half of the 19th century, Dillon writes that the Hui forces attacked major towns and Xi'an, which he calls the capital of Shanxi province, and that when Qing forces were sent against them the Muslim armies withdrew westward to Gansu; the row reads this as a record of the rebel armies in the province and of their leaving it, not of a community settled there or of its end. He writes that the suppression of the rising in 1873 devastated northwestern China and that Hui communities were forcibly resettled, without naming the places, a statement this site does not read as an end there, since it names a region and not the place. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Shaanxi a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Xi'an in the Shaanxi block; 1700 is drawn with Gordon's China.³⁴³¹³¹
1800 to 1900	The northern highlands of North Yemen (Sa'da)	Present	Medium	Both	Burrowes writes that al-Hadi founded the Zaydi imamate, the state of the Zaydi branch of Shia Islam, among the tribes around Sa'da in 897, and that it lasted, with numerous changes of fortune and breaks in continuity, into the 1960s; Zaydism still prevails in the northern highlands. Medium because of those breaks; the row takes only the region of Sa'da.³⁷⁰³⁷¹
1850	Abyssinia	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Abyssinia in a volume dated 1853, which names no year after 1843, writes that the Gallas, a people from the south, had spread over the greater part of Abyssinia, and that while most of them kept their own traditional religion, many had adopted Islam and not a few the Christianity of the Abyssinians; it writes that Shoa was inhabited chiefly by Gallas and Angot by Gallas, each under a Galla prince. The blocks are Abyssinia, by this site's reading the Tigray and Amhara blocks. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.¹³⁹
1850	Anatolia	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part, Anatolia, Syria and Iraq, and Arabia: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people, or 78.8 percent by this site's arithmetic. A figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, so the row draws a Muslim majority across the blocks of Asia Minor that the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's figure of 1896 covers, with Kars and Ardahan, which the same article says became Russian only in 1878, and Artvin and Ajaria, read as the Batum territory that went with them; Kılıç's figures for Van in the TDV encyclopedia, for the middle of the seventeenth century and for 1897 to 1898, agree. Mus has a row of its own, Hatay is drawn with Syria, Istanbul keeps its own figure, and Igdir is not drawn, since no source in hand places it within the empire at this step. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in a volume dated 1860, gives a table that it says corresponds in essentials with the census of 1852, counting 12,870,000 Muslims among the 16,100,000 people of Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, a figure that agrees. Medium because the figures are for the whole Asian part.¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶¹⁸⁰²⁰⁰
1850	Arabia beyond the Hijaz, Sa'da, Hadhramaut, and Oman	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Arabia, in a volume dated 1853 that names no year after 1845, writes in the present tense that the Arabs hold the festivals of Ramadan and of the sacrifice of Arafat, and that the sherifs, the descendants of Muhammad, hold the first rank among the great families of Arabia and are found in all Muslim countries. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith, and the Jewish layer reads the same article for Arabia at this step. The blocks are Arabia as the row for 1800 draws it, Sana'a among them (GeoNames places the town in the Amanat Al Asimah block), less Hadhramaut, which has a row of its own at this step, as do the Hijaz, Sa'da, and Oman. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁴³⁰⁴³¹
1850	Buganda	Present	Low	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that in East Africa Islam long remained confined to the coast before it was introduced into the interior, for instance into Buganda in 1840. Low because the gazetteer's point for Buganda (Uganda's Central Region, which GeoNames also calls Buganda Province) falls in this one block, and the kingdom covered more.³³⁵²²³
1850	Bulgaria beyond Sofia and Plovdiv (Rumelia and Silistra)	Present	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of late 1830, which recorded males only ("yalnız erkek nüfus tesbit edilmiş") in the provinces of Anadolu, Karaman, Çıldır, Cezâyir-i Bahr-i Sefîd, Rumeli, and Silistre; its Rumeli column, which this site reads as the provinces of Rumeli and Silistre and as covering today's Bulgaria, counts 513,448 Muslims ("İslâm") among 1,369,766 males, 37.5 percent by this site's arithmetic, above the 5 percent at which a census count alone draws a province. The count falls 20 years before 1850. Sofia and Plovdiv have a row of their own. Medium because the count is for two provinces and their extent is this site's reading.¹⁴¹
1850	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 names Turks among the people of Cyprus, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, lists the Turks as Muslim and, in a note to its table of peoples, places them also on Cyprus; no source in hand records an end of the island's Muslim community between. The row reads two mentions of Muslims on Cyprus a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁶⁸¹⁸⁶
1850	European Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume of 1860, whose table of the people by religion it ties to the census of 1852, gives European Turkey 16,200,000 people, of whom 5,900,000 were Muslims, a total to which it adds the population of Wallachia and Moldavia, Servia, and Montenegro. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; the blocks are European Turkey by the table's own total, as the Christian layer reads the same table, Montenegro and the Dobrudja (today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, which the 1911 Britannica bounds by the Danube) among them. Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, also lists Wallachia (Eflak) and Moldavia (Boğdan) in the European part of the Ottoman count of 1844, which gives that part 4,550,000 Muslims ("Müslüman"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates; Moldavia is drawn west of the Prut, as the Jewish layer draws it, and Servia south of the Danube and the Save. Istanbul, Edirne, Bulgaria, Bosnia, Albania, Kosovo, Skopje, Ohrid, Debar and Plav, Salonica, Thessaly, and Crete have rows of their own. Medium because the article describes European Turkey as a whole and gives no figures for its parts.²⁰⁰¹⁴¹¹⁴⁷
1850	Hadhramaut	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Arabia in a volume dated 1853, which names no year after 1845, writes that the settled people of Hadhramaut's towns and villages hold Hud, whom they count a prophet, in great veneration, with crowds of pilgrims visiting his tomb in the Wadi Doan each year, and call their land the unconquerable refuge of the true doctrine of Muhammad, and that its Bedouins profess Islam, though the reformed creed of the Wahhabis never reached its mountains. The block is Hadramawt, by this site's reading of the article's Hadhramaut. Medium because the source describes the region broadly and gives no count.⁴³⁰
1850	Hindustan: Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Peshawar	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Hindustan in a volume dated 1856, which gives no year for the passage, writes that the great division of the people was into Hindus and Muslims, in the proportion of about seven to one, and counts within the country Northern Hindustan, the Himalaya and its lower ranges from Peshawar and Kashmir to Bhutan and Assam. The blocks are Delhi and Uttar Pradesh, which have rows of their own at 1800, and the Assam and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa blocks, which lie inside this article's bounds only, by this site's reading; GeoNames places Peshawar in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa block. The share is of a minority and is read only as placing Muslims; medium because the statement covers the country as a whole.¹⁹⁰³⁴
1850	Iraq	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part, Anatolia, Syria and Iraq, and Arabia: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people, or 78.8 percent by this site's arithmetic. A figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, so the row draws a Muslim majority across Iraq, which the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Iraq entry writes was under Ottoman rule from the occupation of Baghdad in 1534 until 1917, apart from 15 years of Persian rule (1623 to 1638); the same entry estimates the people of Baghdad in 1845 at about 16,000 Jews, 40,000 Muslims, and 4,000 Christians, a figure for the city that agrees. Medium because the figure is for the whole Asian part.¹⁴¹⁴³²
1850	Mus	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people, and a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. Tuncel writes in the same encyclopedia that Ottoman rule was established at Mus in 1515, that Brant, visiting in 1838, found 700 Muslim and 500 Armenian families in the town, and that Koch, in 1846, gave 1,000 Muslim and 415 Armenian families, figures for the town that agree. Medium because the figures are for the Asian part and for the town, drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁴¹¹²⁵
1850	Salonica	Present	Medium	Both	Hacısalihoğlu writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1840 Fallmerayer counted about 30,000 to 36,000 Jews, more than 25,000 Turks, and about 3,000 to 4,000 Greeks in Salonica, 10 years before this step; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, and a count of a people places a community of the faith a cited source ties it to, without showing a majority by faith. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, in a volume of 1860, counts 5,900,000 Muslims among the 16,200,000 people of European Turkey, which contains the block, in a table it ties to the census of 1852. Medium because the article describes European Turkey as a whole and the traveler's figures are for the city, drawn as the block that holds GeoNames' point for it.¹⁴⁵¹⁸⁶²⁰⁰⁴⁰²
1850	Siam's Malay tributary states	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Siam in a volume dated 1860, counts probably nearly 1,000,000 Malays among Siam's people, occupying the peninsula south of latitude 7 north, and names Siam's tributary Malay states as Patani, Tringanu, Kalantan, and Quedah; the fourth edition, of 1810, writes that the Arabs had converted the Malays to Islam, so the count places Muslims there, though it names a people, not a faith, and is not read as a share by faith. The blocks are those four states, by this site's reading: Pattani, Yala, and Narathiwat for Patani, Terengganu, Kelantan, and Kedah with Perlis and Satun for Quedah. Medium because the source names the states broadly and gives no count by faith.⁷¹³⁸
1850	Skopje	Present	Medium	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1870 Skopje counted 20,800 people, 13,000 of them Muslims, 7,000 Christians, and 800 Jews, and in 1877 16,462 Muslims, 14,586 Christians, and 160 Jews. Present, not prevalent, because the figures fall 20 years or more from the step; medium because the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1850	Syria beyond Jerusalem and Mount Lebanon	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part, Anatolia, Syria and Iraq, and Arabia: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people, or 78.8 percent by this site's arithmetic. A figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, so the row draws a Muslim majority across greater Syria, with Damascus and Aleppo, for which no figure of their own has been found, and with Hatay, which this site reads as part of the province of Aleppo, since Marcus writes that the province extended over much of northern Syria and parts of southern Anatolia. Mount Lebanon and Jerusalem, whose own accounts point the other way, have rows of their own. The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in a volume dated 1860, gives a table that it says corresponds in essentials with the census of 1852, counting 12,870,000 Muslims among the 16,100,000 people of Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, a figure that agrees. Medium because the figures are for the whole Asian part.¹⁴¹⁴¹⁹²⁰⁰
1850	The Cherkess and Abazin lands	Present	Medium	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write, in their account of the second Naqshbandi jihad (1824 to 1859), that the work of Naqshbandi missionaries in the central and western Caucasus achieved the Islamization of all the Cherkess and Abazin tribes. They give it as one of the jihad's lasting effects without a year of its own, and this site reads the passage as dating that work to the jihad's span, which contains this step. The blocks are Adygea and Karachay-Cherkessia, whose name carries the Cherkess, by this site's reading of the lands of these western Caucasian peoples, as the Ajaria row reads the Adzhars onto Ajaria from the same chapter, and the Krasnodar block, which takes in the western Caucasus south of the Kuban river, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same account for the same three blocks at this step. Medium because the source names peoples and describes their lands only broadly.²⁰²
1850	The Crimea	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its volume of 1855, writes that Islam was the religion professed by all the Ottoman and other Turks and Tartars in the Russian and Turkish empires, and that those of Russia were in the spiritual charge of two grand muftis, one residing at Kazan and the other at Simferopol in the Crimea. Medium because the source names the mufti's seat but gives no count for the peninsula, drawn as the Crimea block.¹⁹⁴
1850	The Hijaz (Mecca and Medina)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume dated 1860, gives the people of Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia as 16,100,000, 12,870,000 of them Muslims, or 79.9 percent by this site's arithmetic, in a table that, it writes, corresponds in essentials with the last census, of 1852, two years after this step (the figures are read from the scan's page image, since the scanned text scrambles the table), and adds that the Muslims continue decidedly to predominate; Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844, in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, with Arabia ("Arabistan") in the empire's Asian part and 12,650,000 Muslims among its 16,050,000 people. A figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, and by this site's reading the empire's Arabia takes in the Hijaz, whose holy city of Mecca, with its port of Djidda, the 1853 edition's article on Arabia writes the Turkish commander took possession of in January 1813. Medium because the figures are for the whole Asian part.²⁰⁰¹⁴¹⁴³⁰³⁴⁰³⁴¹
1850	The Turkmen country north of Khurasan	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Persia in a volume dated 1859, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for the passage, writes that most of the wandering tribes of Turkmens were Sunni Muslims, and that to the north of Khurasan various tribes of Turkmens occupied the country behind the Alburz (the article's Alburj) and the steppe of Kharazm. The blocks are that country, by this site's reading: Turkmenistan beyond Merv, which has a row of its own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.¹⁸⁵
1850	Tibet, with Ladak and Balti	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Tibet in a volume dated 1860, writes that of the foreigners in Tibet the principal classes were the Bhutanese and the Matchi, Muslims from Kashmir, who were mostly merchants; that in the province of Balti, in the extreme west, Islam prevails; and that, besides Balti's Muslims, the Roman Catholics, of whom there were believed to be about 8,000 throughout Tibet, were almost the only exceptions to the universal prevalence of Buddhism. The blocks are Tibet as the article describes it, with Ladak in its western part, by this site's reading, and Pakistan's Northern Areas block for Balti, whose name GeoNames' entry for Gilgit-Baltistan carries; the article bounds Tibet on the north by the Koko-Nor territory, so the Qinghai block, part of which lies south of that territory, is drawn too, as the Buddhism layer reads the same article. The article's words describe most of Balti's people, but Balti is only part of that block, so the row is present. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁷²⁷³
1850	Yunnan (Dali)	Present	High	Both	Dillon writes that in 1855 Han and Hui miners in Yunnan came into conflict over mineral rights, and that in August 1856 the Muslim Du Wenxiu rose in rebellion and made Dali the base of an independent Islamic state, which he ruled until 1873.³⁴³
1850 to 1900	Istanbul	Present	High	Both	Karpat writes that between 1844 and 1880 more than half the city's people were non-Muslims, and gives the complete census of 1885 as 384,910 Muslims, 359,412 non-Muslims, and 129,243 foreigners in a city of 873,565, and the census of 1914 as 560,434 Muslims of 909,978; Hudson writes that the Ottoman capital had been at Istanbul since 1453. Quataert writes that during the nineteenth century Islam became the predominant religion of the Ottoman Empire, but the city's own counts decide for it. For 1900, Karpat's statement that by 1885 "the rate of growth for the Muslim population was more than 54%" and that "this rate reached almost 70% in 1900" is read as printed, a rate of growth, not a share. His table for 1897 counts peoples, not faiths: Turks and Kurds, whom the 1911 Britannica's article on Turkey lists as Muslim, number 602,000 of 1,059,000, and the table lists no foreigners; a count of peoples places a community but is not read as a majority by faith, for any faith. The saved copy of his summary of the census of 1906 to 1907 prints its grand totals as "#####", and Inalcik's rows for 1856 give two numbers each without showing which columns they fill. So no share by faith is read within 10 years of either step, and the city is drawn as present. High because the city's own counts place a large Muslim community there on both sides of these steps.¹⁶⁴¹⁵¹¹²³¹⁴⁶
1850 to 1900	Jerusalem (al-Quds)	Prevalent	Low	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, writes that Islam is "absolutely predominant" in Asiatic Turkey and lists the Arabs of the sanjak of Jerusalem as Muslim. The Encyclopaedia Judaica counts the city's people at the end of the 1880s as 43,000, among them 28,000 Jews and 7,000 Muslims; a town's figure decides for its block only where the town is the whole block, and the Jerusalem block is far larger than the city, so the block keeps the larger area's majority, at low confidence because the city's own figure points the other way. Simon and Fischbach write that in the nineteenth century the city was home to Muslim Arab notables whose Khalidi, Nashashibi, and Husayni families played important roles in Muslim religious administration.¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶⁴³³³⁴⁷⁴²²
1850 to 1900	Malabar and Travancore (the Mappilas)	Present	Medium	Both	Asani names religious scholars among the Mappilas, as the Muslims of Kerala are called, Sayyid Alawi (died 1843 or 1844) and his son Sayyid Fadl (died 1900). The Imperial Gazetteer of India gives Travancore's Muslims in 1901 as 190,566, 6.4 percent of the state's people, above the 5 percent at which a census count alone draws a province, and writes in its volume on the census of 1901 that one-third of the Muslims of Madras are in Malabar. Medium because the sources describe Kerala broadly, and the figures are for Travancore State and Malabar District, drawn as the Kerala block.³³⁶³¹²²³¹
1850 to 1900	Massina and Segu	Present	Low	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Ahmadu Lobbo's jihad of 1818 in Massina, on the middle Niger south of Tombouctou, founded a state that lasted until 1864, and that the Tijani leader al-Hajj Umar (1794 or 1797 to 1864) forged an Islamic state incorporating Segu, Kaarta, and Massina, which survived his death by several decades. Low because Umar's state is dated only by his death in 1864, 14 years after 1850, and by "several decades" after it.³³⁵⁴³⁴⁴³⁵
1850 to 1900	Mount Lebanon	Present	Medium	Both	Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives the Ottoman count of 1844 ("1844 sayımına göre"), in round numbers that this site treats as estimates, for the empire's Asian part, Syria among it: 12,650,000 Muslims ("Müslüman") among 16,050,000 people; the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, writes that Islam is "absolutely predominant" in Asiatic Turkey. A figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it, but a part's own account decides for the part: Carlson writes that Mount Lebanon continued to have a substantial Maronite Christian population to the present, and the 1911 article calls it the "somewhat privileged district of Lebanon" and names a Christian community and the Druze there, not the Muslim Arabs. So the larger area's majority is not read down to the block, which is drawn as present, as at 1600. Medium because the sources give no figure for the block.¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶¹³⁰
1850 to 1900	Sofia and Plovdiv	Present	Medium	Both	Şahin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that, according to the provincial yearbooks of 1872 to 1873, Sofia had 3,065 Muslim and 1,737 non-Muslim households, and Kiel that by the Ottoman census of 1876 the district of Filibe (Plovdiv) had 40,874 Muslims, counting men only, and 85,373 Christians, Muslims being 32 percent of the whole. Both counts fall within 30 years of 1850 and of 1900. Şahin adds that a significant part of Sofia's Turkish and Muslim people left in 1878, and that the principality's first census, in 1881, counted 535 Turks among the city's 20,501 people, 19 years before 1900; the 1911 Britannica's article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim, so that count places Muslims in the city at 1900. Medium because the figures are for a city and a district, drawn as the blocks that hold them.¹⁶⁷¹⁴⁸¹⁸⁶¹⁶⁸¹⁴⁹
1850 to 1900	The Sokoto caliphate	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Usuman dan Fodio's campaigns of 1804 to 1810 engulfed the Hausa states, western Bornu, Adamawa, Nupe, and the Yoruba state of Ilorin, which they call the basis of Islam's later inroads among the Yoruba, creating the Sokoto caliphate, and that his descendants kept their influence in northern Nigeria under colonial rule. The row adds the Sokoto and Ilorin blocks to the Hausaland row; Adamawa, Nupe, and western Bornu, which the source names only among the lands the campaigns engulfed, a statement about conquest, are not drawn. Medium because the source does not give the caliphate's extent.³³⁵⁴³⁶⁴³⁷
1850 to 1900	Zanzibar	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that the sultan of Oman moved his capital to Zanzibar in the 1830s, bringing growth in Islamic education on the coast and the development of the Ibadi school in East Africa, and Jones names Zanzibar, with Oman, as a main home of the Ibadis. Medium because the row takes the whole island of Unguja for the town.³³⁵³²⁷⁴³⁸
1900	Albania	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania, which reports trade figures for 1898 and events up to 1908, estimates its population at 1,500,000 to 1,600,000, of whom about 600,000 were Christians, and writes that probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians were Muslims, about 55 percent of the vilayet of Scutari, with central Albania almost entirely Muslim and a considerable Christian population in the south. Harakas writes that Albania's people were predominantly Muslim before World War II. Medium because the article's Albania is larger than today's block, and its figures are estimates.¹⁴²¹¹⁴
1900	Asia Minor, Armenia, and Kurdistan	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey gives, for 1896, 10,030,000 Muslims in a population of 13,241,000 in Armenia, Kurdistan, and Asia Minor, or 75.7 percent (computed), with 1,144,000 Armenians, 1,818,000 other Christians, and 249,000 Jews. It writes that Kars, Ardahan, and Batum became Russian in 1878, so the Kars and Ardahan blocks, and by this site's reading the Artvin and Igdir blocks, are not drawn; Istanbul keeps its own row, and Hatay, then in the vilayet of Aleppo by this site's reading, is drawn with the Arab vilayets. Quataert writes that Islam became the predominant religion of the empire during the nineteenth century, and Kılıç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Van, gives 103,260 Muslims among 169,377 adults in the Van sanjak and its districts in the province's yearbook for 1897 to 1898, a figure for a part that agrees. Medium because the 1896 figure is for a region larger than any one block, which by this site's reading is today's Asian Turkey; a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it.¹⁸⁶¹²³¹⁸⁰
1900	Assam (the province of 1901)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports from that year's census, Islam was the religion of 26 percent of the people of Assam, two-thirds of whose Muslims lived in the single District of Sylhet, drawn with Eastern Bengal. The blocks are the rest of the province, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same volume's province figure onto them; a province's count covers every block in the province. Medium because the province of 1901 and today's blocks match only approximately.²³¹
1900	Astrakhan province	Present	Medium	Both	In 1897, Russia's first general census counted 307,239 Muslims among Astrakhan province's 1,003,542 people (30.6 percent, by this site's arithmetic). The census lists name the town of Astrakhan, in today's Astrakhan block, and two steppes, the Kalmyk steppe (128,573 people, with no towns) and the Inner Kirghiz Horde, as the census names it (214,796, whose only listed settlement is the Khan's Stavka, or headquarters), whose shares the province figure hides; the Kalmykia block, for the Kalmyk steppe, and the West Kazakhstan block, for the Inner Horde, are drawn by this site's reading of the 1897 borders. Medium because the figure is for the whole province.⁷⁵⁷⁶⁷⁷
1900	Azerbaijan	Present	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Baku province counted 676,243 Muslims in a population of 826,716, or 81.8 percent (computed), and Elisavetpol province 552,822 in 878,415, or 62.9 percent (computed). No source in hand places today's district blocks of Azerbaijan in those provinces, so the block is drawn as present rather than by the provinces' majorities. Bennigsen and Bryan write that after the Safavid conquest of 1538 the Twelver Shia rite became the dominant form of Islam in Azerbaijan.²³⁵²³⁴²⁰²
1900	Bihar (Bengal)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Islam was the religion of 32 percent of the people of Bengal, with proportions that varied greatly within the province: two in three in its eastern tract, 4.5 percent in Chota Nagpur, and 2.5 percent in Orissa (the scan reads "4I" and "2\", read here as four and a half and two and a half). The volume gives Bihar a figure only for Hindus, more than four-fifths, and none for Muslims, so the province's count covers it, as a province's count covers every block in the province, and as the Christian layer reads the same volume's figure for Bengal onto the Bihar block. Medium because the province of 1901 and today's block match only approximately.²³¹
1900	Bombay and Hyderabad State	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Islam was the religion of 18 percent of the people of Bombay, nearly three-fifths of whose Muslims lived in Sind, which has a row of its own, and of 10.4 percent of the people of Hyderabad State (the scan reads "10-4"), where Hindus were 88.6 percent; it adds that Mysore held an exceptionally small proportion of Muslims. The blocks are those that Bombay without Sind and Hyderabad State mostly cover, by this site's reading, as the Hindu layer reads the same Hyderabad passage for Telangana and the Christian layer the province figures for Maharashtra and Karnataka; a province's count covers every block in the province. Medium because the units of 1901 and today's blocks match only approximately.²³¹³¹¹
1900	Bosnia and Herzegovina	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Bosnia and Herzegovina writes that in 1895, 43 percent of the population were Orthodox Christians, 35 percent Muslims, and 21 percent Roman Catholics. Medium because the figure is five years before the step.¹⁸⁹
1900	Bukhara and Khiva	Present	Medium	Both	Akiner writes that after the Russian conquest Bukhara and Khiva kept some autonomy as protectorates, that the emir of Bukhara backed the conservative ulama against reformers, and that by the end of the century some twenty thousand Muslims of the Russian empire, mostly Central Asians, made the pilgrimage to Mecca each year. No census figure was found for these two blocks. Medium because the source names the states, not their extent.³¹⁸³⁵⁸
1900	Ceylon	Present	Medium	Both	Sri Lanka's Department of Census and Statistics gives, for the census of 1901, 246.1 thousand Muslims in a total population of 3,566.0 thousand (Table 2.13), 6.9 percent by this site's arithmetic, without saying where they lived. Medium because the row takes the whole island for a count that the source does not place.⁷⁸
1900	Cyprus	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, lists the Turks as Muslim and, in a note to its table of peoples, places them in certain islands of the vilayet of the Archipelago, on Cyprus, and on Crete. Medium because the source names the island and gives no count.¹⁸⁶
1900	Dagestan	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Dagestan province, whose district towns include Derbent, counted 540,290 Muslims in a population of 571,154, or 94.6 percent (computed). The north of today's block held Terek province's Kizlyar district, whose town GeoNames places in Dagestan; Terek province was 52.4 percent Muslim (computed). Medium because the provinces of 1897 are not the shape of today's block.²⁰³²⁰⁷²⁰⁴²⁰⁸³⁴²⁴³⁹
1900	Dibra, and Plava and Gusinye (the 1911 Britannica's Albania)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania names Dibra among Albania's principal towns and draws Albania's northern frontier so as to leave Gusinye and Plava on its side; GeoNames places these towns in today's Debar and Plav blocks. For the whole of that Albania the article gives about 600,000 Christians in 1,500,000 to 1,600,000 people, and probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians Muslim, while it notes a considerable Christian population in southern Albania and "a strong Bulgarian colony in the neighbourhood of Dibra and Ochrida". Medium because the figure is for the article's whole Albania, not for these blocks; a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. The Ohrid block, which holds the article's Ochrida, has a row of its own.¹⁴²¹⁷⁶¹⁷⁸¹⁷⁹
1900	Egypt	Prevalent	Medium	Both	O'Sullivan writes that the first census, in 1846, and the censuses after it consistently put the Copts at about 8 percent of the population, and names the census of 1882 among them; on that wording the majority is carried to this step. Poonawala writes that al-Azhar had 361 teachers and 10,780 students in 1876. Medium because O'Sullivan dates no census nearer 1900.¹²⁴³⁶²
1900	European Turkey (Macedonia and Thrace)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, beside its estimate for the whole empire in 1910, writes that about one-third of the people of the European provinces were Muslim and two-thirds Christian, and lists the Turks, spread over the whole of European Turkey, as Muslim. It places Turkey in Europe between latitudes 38 degrees 46 minutes and 42 degrees 50 minutes north, "bounded on the N.W. by Montenegro and Bosnia, on the N. by Servia and Bulgaria, on the E. by the Black Sea and the Bosporus, on the S. by the Sea of Marmora, the Dardanelles, the Aegean Sea and Greece, and on the W. by the Ionian and Adriatic Seas", and names Edirne (Adrianople) and Salonica with Kossovo (Macedonia) among its divisions; the article on the vilayet of Adrianople names Gumuljina among its towns, and the article on Albania names Florina and Kastoria on the line that marks the edge of the Albanian lands. GeoNames places Salonica, Gumuljina (Komotini), and Kastoria in the Kentriki Makedonia, Anatoliki Makedonia kai Thraki, and Dytiki Makedonia blocks, and these blocks, North Macedonia's, and Turkey's three in Thrace lie within the bounds the article gives. The Debar and Ohrid blocks, which the article's Albania takes in, have their own rows, and Mount Athos is left out, as at 1500, since the TDV entry on Greece describes it as a center of Orthodox monasteries and no source in hand places Muslims there. Medium because the figure is for all the European provinces, not for each block.¹⁸⁶¹⁵⁹¹⁴²¹⁴⁵⁴⁰²¹⁶³⁴⁴⁰
1900	Fergana province (the Fergana valley)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Russian census of 1897 counted 1,557,057 Muslims among 1,572,214 people in Fergana province, 99.0 percent by our arithmetic. Its district lists name the towns of Kokand, Andijan, Namangan, and Osh, which GeoNames places in today's Fergana, Andijan, Namangan, and Osh blocks. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, not for each block.⁴⁴¹⁴⁴²⁴⁴³⁴⁴⁴⁴⁴⁵⁴⁴⁶
1900	Gujarat (Baroda State)	Present	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India's article on Baroda gives 165,014 Muslims, 129,508 of them Sunnis and 35,506 Shias, among the state's 1,952,692 people in 1901, or 8.5 percent (computed), above the 5 percent at which a census count alone draws a province; Baroda State lies within the Gujarat block, as the Hinduism row reads it. Medium because the figure is for Baroda State, not for the whole block.²⁷⁷
1900	Iannina, in Epiros (the 1911 Britannica's Albania)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania names Iannina among Albania's principal towns, and GeoNames places it in today's Epirus block. The article finds a considerable Greek-speaking population in Epiros, including many Muslim Albanians, and says the limits of southern Albania's considerable Christian population "practically coincide with those of the Greek-speaking districts". Drawn "present", not "prevalent", at medium: the block also takes in the Arta district, which the article says Greece acquired in 1881, and the article gives no figure for Epiros alone.¹⁴²¹⁷²
1900	Kangra and Simla (the Jullundur and Delhi Divisions)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, the Punjab's Jullundur Division, whose Kangra District lies entirely in the hills, counted 1,457,193 Muslims in a population of 4,306,662, or 34 percent (computed), and the five Native States under its Commissioner, Mandi and Suket among them, 245,403 Muslims among 745,490 people, or 33 percent (computed); the Delhi Division, which held the small District of Simla and the hill station of Kasauli, counted 1,192,331 Muslims in a population of 4,587,092, or 26 percent (computed), and was 71 percent Hindu. GeoNames places Kangra and Shimla in the Himachal Pradesh block, so each division's figure counts for the part of the block it covers, as a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. Medium because the divisions of 1901 and today's block match only approximately.²⁸¹²⁷⁵²⁸⁸²⁸⁹
1900	Kashmir	Prevalent	Low	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India (1909) writes that, at the last census, of 1901, Islam was the religion of 74 percent of the inhabitants of Kashmir, and that proportions varied greatly within provinces. Low because the page does not say what area its "Kashmir" covers; the row takes the two blocks that bear the name.²³¹
1900	Kazan province (Chuvashia and Mari El)	Present	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Kazan province counted 633,024 Muslims in a population of 2,170,665, or 29.2 percent (computed); its district towns include Cheboksary and Tsarevokokshaysk (today's Yoshkar-Ola), in today's Chuvashia and Mari El blocks. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, which does not show how its Muslims were spread among its districts.²⁰⁵²⁰⁹²²⁸²²⁹
1900	Kelantan	Present	Medium	Both	Johns writes that To'Kenali (1866 to 1933), a scholar from Kelantan, an east-coast state of the Malay Peninsula, went to Mecca at twenty and stayed in the Middle East for twenty-two years before returning to Kelantan in 1908, where he became assistant to the state's mufti. Medium because the source's dates fall near, not at, this step.¹⁸¹
1900	Kosovo (the 1911 Britannica's north-eastern Albania, in the vilayet of Kossovo)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania writes that north-eastern Albania forms part of the vilayet of Kossovo and names Prizren, Jakova, Prishtina, and Ipek among Albania's principal towns; for the whole of that Albania it gives about 600,000 Christians in 1,500,000 to 1,600,000 people, and probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians Muslim. It roughly marks the region of a more or less homogeneous Albanian population by a line from the Montenegrin frontier at Berane through Mitrovitza, which its Kossovo article places "in Albania", to the Servian frontier near Vranya. That article gives no figures by religion. Medium because the block is drawn by the figure for the larger area the article calls Albania, which counts for the places inside it, and its districts north of Mitrovitza, which lie beyond the article's line, are drawn with the rest of the block.¹⁴²²²⁰¹⁷⁴¹⁷⁵⁴⁴⁷
1900	Kuban province	Present	Medium	Both	In 1897, Russia's first general census counted 102,920 Muslims among Kuban province's 1,918,881 people (5.4 percent, by this site's arithmetic), above the 5 percent at which a census count alone draws a province, whose count covers every block in it; the blocks are the province by this site's reading of its borders, as the Christian layer reads the same table. Bennigsen and Bryan write, in their account of the second Naqshbandi jihad (1824 to 1859), that the work of Naqshbandi missionaries in the central and western Caucasus achieved the Islamization of all the Cherkess and Abazin tribes. Medium because the figure is for the whole province.²²⁴²⁰²
1900	Kumaun	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Muslims were 7 percent of Kumaun, the most northern Division of the United Provinces, and Hindus more than 92 percent; half of the Muslims lived in the Tarai portion of Naini Tal District, which GeoNames places in the Uttarakhand block. A count of 5 percent or more places a faith by itself, and the block is drawn from the division that lies within it, as the Hindu layer reads the same article. Medium because the division of 1901 and today's block match only approximately.²⁷⁶³⁰⁵
1900	Larissa (Yenişehir), in Thessaly	Present	Low	Both	Kiel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that an official Greek report of 1880, 20 years before this step, gave Yenişehir (Larissa) 10,800 Turks, 6,000 Greeks, and 3,000 Jews, with fifty-one mosques and prayer halls, and that when Thessaly was given to Greece in 1881 its Turks sold their property for next to nothing and emigrated; the entry on Greece writes that the last of Thessaly's remaining population went to Turkey under the Lausanne treaty. Low because the two entries differ on how many stayed after 1881.¹⁵³¹⁴⁵¹⁵⁴
1900	Natal	Present	High	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that a significant number of the indentured laborers brought from India for the sugarcane fields of Natal were Muslim and established a base for the faith. South African History Online writes that indentured laborers arrived from 1860 to 1911 and that 7 to 10 percent of them were Muslim, and its article on Durban's Grey Street mosque, whose site was bought in 1881, that Indians numbered around a hundred thousand of Natal's million people in 1904, ten percent of them Muslim, and that the mosque was enlarged in 1903 and 1904 to accommodate the steadily increasing Muslim population. High because the sources agree and give a figure four years from the step.³³⁵³⁰⁹³¹⁰
1900	Ochrida (the 1911 Britannica's Albania)	Prevalent	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Albania names Ochrida among Albania's principal towns and gives, for the whole of that Albania, about 600,000 Christians in 1,500,000 to 1,600,000 people, and probably more than three-fifths of the Albanians Muslim; a figure for a larger area counts for the places inside it. Aruçi, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives Kančov's count toward 1900 of 8,000 Bulgarians and Macedonians, 300 Albanian and 460 Vlach Christians, and 5,000 Turks and 500 Albanian Muslims in the town of Ohrid. A town's figure decides its block only where the town makes up the block, so the larger area's majority is kept; low because the town's own figure near the step points the other way. GeoNames places Ochrida in the Ohrid block.¹⁴²¹⁵²¹⁷⁷
1900	Palembang	Present	Medium	Both	Johns writes that the reformist journal Al-manar, published from 1898, carried articles contributed by religious scholars from places in the Indies that include Palembang, and that a 1909 article from Palembang told how the journal had inspired the Muslims of the region to form associations and financial unions to support Islamic schools; the article falls within 30 years of the step. Medium because the source describes the region through one town, which GeoNames places in the Sumatera Selatan block.¹⁸¹⁴²⁸
1900	Samarkand province (Samarkand, Jizzakh, and Sughd)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Russian census of 1897 counted 838,861 Muslims among 860,021 people in the Samarkand province, about 97.5 percent by our arithmetic. Its district lists name the towns of Samarkand, Jizak, and Khojent, which GeoNames places in today's Samarkand, Jizzakh, and Sughd blocks. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, not for each block.⁴⁴⁸⁴⁴⁹³⁵⁹⁴⁵⁰⁴⁵¹
1900	Sind	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India gives the census of 1901: 2,446,489 Muslims, or 76 percent of the population in the British Districts of Sind. Medium because the figure covers the British Districts only.²⁷⁸
1900	Southwestern Georgia (the Adzhars)	Present	Low	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Turks conquered southwestern Georgia in 1627 and that a part of its people embraced Islam, and that the descendants of these Georgian Muslims, the Adzhars, numbered 100,000 to 150,000 late in the twentieth century. The row reads two mentions of Muslims in Ajaria a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, as it does for Kerala's Mappilas, and because the source names southwestern Georgia only broadly, drawn as Ajaria, the land that takes its name from the Adzhars, by this site's reading.²⁰²
1900	Syr-Darya province (Tashkent and the southern Kazakh steppe)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Russian census of 1897 counted 1,425,313 Muslims among 1,478,398 people in Syr-Darya province, 96.4 percent by our arithmetic. Its district lists name the towns of Tashkent, Aulie-Ata, Perovsk, Chimkent, and Petro-Aleksandrovsk, which GeoNames places in today's Tashkent (with the surrounding Tashkent region block, by this site's reading), Zhambyl, Kyzylorda, South Kazakhstan, and Karakalpakstan blocks. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, not for each block.⁴⁵²⁴⁵³⁴⁵⁴⁴⁵⁵⁴⁵⁶⁴⁵⁷⁴⁵⁸
1900	Syria, the Mesopotamian lowlands, the Hejaz, and Sana'a (Asiatic Turkey)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, writes that in the Asiatic part of the empire Islam is "absolutely predominant", and lists the Arabs of the vilayets of Aleppo, Syria, Beirut, Bagdad, Basra, the Hejaz, and Yemen and of the sanjak of Jerusalem, and the Kurds of Mosul, as Muslim; it counts the vilayets of the Hejaz and Yemen, with Mecca and Medina, among Turkey's Arabian possessions, and names Sana (Sana'a), with 58,000 people, among the empire's towns. The Mount Lebanon block, the article's "somewhat privileged district of Lebanon", which it does not name among the lands of the Muslim Arabs, is drawn as present in a row of its own, and the Jerusalem block has a row of its own at low confidence, since the city counted 7,000 Muslims among 43,000 people at the end of the 1880s, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica's figures. Medium because the statement is for the whole Asiatic empire and gives no figure for these lands, and because by this site's reading of the 1910 borders the vilayets cover these blocks, Hatay (Alexandretta) among them with Aleppo; of the vilayet of Yemen only the block that holds Sana'a is drawn, as GeoNames places it.¹⁸⁶⁴³³³⁴⁰³⁴¹⁴³¹
1900	Terek province	Prevalent	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Terek province counted 489,674 Muslims in a population of 933,936, or 52.4 percent (computed), and 368,711 Orthodox Christians. Its district lists name the towns of Grozny, Nalchik, and Vladikavkaz, which GeoNames places in today's Chechnya, Kabardino-Balkaria, and North Ossetia blocks; the Ingushetia block, with no district town, is drawn with them by this site's reading of the 1897 borders. No figures by religion for the districts were found (Demoscope's table gives religion for the province as a whole), so the four blocks are drawn by the province's figure, which does not show how Muslims and Christians were spread among them. Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Ingush, animist until the fall of Shamil, became Muslim, and that their last animist village was converted to Islam in 1864. Medium because the province of 1897 is not the shape of today's blocks.²⁰⁴²⁰⁸²⁰²²¹³²¹⁴²¹²
1900	The Chittagong, Dacca, and Rajshahi Divisions and Sylhet	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India reports the census of 1901: Muslims were 70 percent of the Chittagong Division, 62.4 percent of the Rajshahi Division (with Rangpur among its districts), no less than two thirds of the Dacca Division (Dacca, Mymensingh, Faridpur, and Backergunge), and nearly 53 percent of Sylhet District. Medium because the divisions as the gazetteer gives them, with 1901 census figures, are not today's blocks: its Rajshahi Division, enlarged in 1905 by Malda, included Malda and Jalpaiguri, which GeoNames places in West Bengal, India.⁴⁵⁹⁴⁶⁰²⁸²²⁹⁴²⁹⁵²⁹⁶
1900	The Delhi Division	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, the Punjab's Delhi Division, whose Districts were Hissar, Rohtak, Gurgaon, Delhi, Karnal, Ambala, and Simla, counted 1,192,331 Muslims in a population of 4,587,092, or 26 percent (computed), and Hindus were 71 percent. Rohtak lies in the Haryana block and Delhi in the Delhi block. Medium because the division of 1901 and today's blocks match only approximately.²⁷⁵³¹³³¹⁴
1900	The Dobrudja	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, as bounded on the north and west by the Danube, and writes that when it was wrested from Turkey and given to Rumania in 1878 it was peopled by Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews, and others, whose numbers decreased steadily after 1880; its article on Turkey lists the Turks as Muslim. Low because the source names peoples, not faiths, and gives no figures; 1850 is drawn with European Turkey.¹⁴⁷¹⁸⁶
1900	The North-West Frontier Province	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India writes that 1,957,777 people, or 92 percent of the population enumerated in 1901, were returned as Muslims, mainly Sunnis, and that in the tribal areas not enumerated Islam's predominance was still more marked. Medium because those tribal areas were not counted.²⁹⁰
1900	The Punjab (Lahore and Jullundur Divisions)	Present	Medium	Both	In 1901, the Imperial Gazetteer of India reports, Muslims were 60 percent of the Lahore Division, whose Amritsar and Gurdaspur Districts lie in this block, while the Jullundur Division, whose Jullundur District also lies in it, counted 1,457,193 Muslims in a population of 4,306,662, or 34 percent (computed). The block mixes divisions with different majorities, so it is drawn as present. The Chandigarh and Islamabad blocks, which no source in hand places in a division, are drawn with it from the Punjab as a whole, where the Gazetteer gives Islam 53 percent and whose divisions had different majorities, as the Christian layer reads the same volume's province figures for the Chandigarh block. Medium because the divisions of 1901 match today's blocks only approximately.²⁷⁹²⁸¹²³¹⁴⁶¹⁴⁶²³¹⁵
1900	The Rawalpindi, Lahore, and Multan Divisions (Punjab)	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India gives the census of 1901: Muslims were nearly 87 percent of the Rawalpindi Division, 60 percent of the Lahore Division, and 79 percent of the Multan Division. Medium because the divisions are not today's block: the Lahore Division's districts include Amritsar and Gurdaspur, which GeoNames places in Punjab, India, and the gazetteer places the state of Bahawalpur beside the Multan Division, not in it.²⁸²²⁷⁹²⁸⁰⁴⁶¹⁴⁶²
1900	The Ufa and Orenburg provinces	Present	Medium	Both	In the census of 1897, as Demoscope Weekly republishes its tables, Ufa province, whose district towns include Ufa (in today's Bashkortostan block) and Zlatoust (in today's Chelyabinsk block), counted 1,095,706 Muslims in a population of 2,196,642, or 49.9 percent (computed), and 1,001,993 Christians, so no faith had a majority. Orenburg province counted 365,543 Muslims in 1,600,145, or 22.8 percent (computed); no district list for it is cited, so the Orenburg block is drawn by this site's reading of the 1897 borders. Medium because the provinces of 1897 are not the shape of today's blocks.¹⁹⁵¹⁹⁶⁴⁶³¹⁹⁷²²¹
1900	The United Provinces	Present	High	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India (1909) counts 7 million Muslims in the United Provinces at the last census, of 1901, 14 percent of the population, and Asani dates the founding of the Dar ul-Ulum at Deoband to 1867.²³¹³³⁶
1900	Touba	Present	Medium	Both	Levtzion and Chande write that Amadou Bamba founded Touba as a holy city in 1888 and that his Murid brotherhood converted thousands in Senegal whose kingdoms colonial rule had destroyed. Medium because the row takes only Touba's region.³³⁵⁴⁶⁴
1900	Transcaspia province	Prevalent	Medium	Both	The Russian census of 1897 counted 336,826 Muslims among 382,487 people in Transcaspia province, 88.1 percent by our arithmetic. Its district lists name the towns of Askhabad, Krasnovodsk, Merv, and Fort Aleksandrovsky, which GeoNames places in today's Ahal, Balkan, Mary, and Mangystau blocks. Medium because the figure is for the whole province, not for each block.⁴⁶⁵⁴⁶⁶⁴⁶⁷⁴⁶⁸³⁵⁷⁴⁶⁹
1900	West Bengal and the Presidency Division	Present	Medium	Both	The Imperial Gazetteer of India reports the census of 1901: the Presidency Division, from Calcutta and Nadia to Jessore and Khulna, was 50 percent Hindu and 49 percent Muslim, and in the Burdwan Division, to the west, Hindus were 83 percent, so neither had a Muslim majority. Medium because the West Bengal block also takes in Malda and Jalpaiguri, which the gazetteer places in the Rajshahi Division, 62.4 percent Muslim as a whole, and GeoNames places in West Bengal; the block cannot be split, so it is drawn as present.²⁹³⁶⁹²⁸²²⁹⁵²⁹⁶
1900	Yunnan (Dali)	Present	Medium	Both	Dillon writes that in August 1856 the Muslim Du Wenxiu rose in rebellion and made Dali the base of an independent Islamic state, which he ruled until 1873. Medium because the source's last date for Yunnan's Muslims falls 27 years before this step.³⁴³

Judaism

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
1000 BCE	Israel, from Dan to Beer-sheba	Present	Medium	Tradition's account	The Orthodox Union dates the giving of the Torah at Sinai to "some thirty three hundred years ago"; with the forty years in the wilderness and the crossing of the Jordan (Numbers 14:33; Joshua 3:17), that places Israel in the land before this step, and the Chabad.org timeline dates the crossing to 2488 (1273 BCE) in the traditional count of years from creation, for which the Encyclopaedia Judaica names Seder Olam as the earliest surviving chronology. The region follows the description in the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) of the settled land, "from Dan even to Beer-sheba" (1 Samuel 3:20), with "the land of Gilead" (Judges 20:1), which lay "from the Jordan eastward" (2 Kings 10:33), not the promised borders. Medium because the verses name only the land's ends and Gilead, so the building blocks between and beyond them, from the coast to Gilead's governorates, are approximate.⁴⁷⁰⁷⁴⁷¹⁴⁷²⁴⁷³⁴⁷⁴⁴⁷⁵
1000 BCE	The central hill country and lower Galilee	Present	Medium	Historians' account	Dever reports almost 300 early hilltop villages in the central hill country and lower Galilee, and says that most mainstream archaeologists now date monumental royal gates at Hazor, Megiddo, and Gezer to the 10th century; the building blocks take in Gezer as well as the villages. Mapped as Israelite religion, the usual English term before the exile, Swartz notes. Medium because, as Davies writes, most biblical scholars lie on a spectrum between those who keep much of the biblical history and those who doubt most of it.⁴⁷⁶⁴⁷⁷⁴⁷⁸⁴⁷⁹
500 BCE	Babylonia	Present	Medium	Historians' account	The Jews came to Babylon after the destruction of the First Temple in 586 BCE, or ten years earlier with the exile of Jehoiachin, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Iraq entry records, and integrated into their land of captivity; Swartz writes that the leaders of Judah returned under the Persians from 538 BCE. Medium because the source names Babylon without saying where the exiles settled.⁴³²⁴⁷⁸⁴⁸⁰
500 BCE	Elephantine	Present	High	Historians' account	Under Persian rule from 525 BCE, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, Elephantine held a camp with companies of Jewish soldiers, whose papyri describe their colony in the sixth and fifth centuries BCE, and the Elephantine Jews wrote that their temple was built before the Persian conquest. The entry writes that it seems clear two goddesses dwelt alongside Yahu, the God of Judah, in the temple, and that they may have been worshipped with him. High because the papyri describe the colony directly.⁴⁸¹⁴⁸²
500 BCE	Galilee	Present	Low	Historians' account	Avi-Yonah writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that when Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Galilee in 732 BCE some of its Israelite inhabitants were deported but the remaining remnant renewed its relations with Jerusalem in the time of Josiah, that nothing is known of Galilee under the Babylonians and Persians, and that Galilee, joined to the Hasmonean kingdom in 104 BCE, rapidly became completely Jewish; he records no end of the remnant between. In historians' account, the row reads two dated mentions of Israelites and Jews in Galilee a century or more apart, of 732 and 104 BCE, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between, as at 250 BCE; low for that reason.⁴⁸³
500 BCE	Judah under Persian rule (Yehud)	Present	Medium	Historians' account	Swartz dates the Babylonian conquest of Judah and the exile of its leaders to 587 BCE, and their return under the Persian emperor Cyrus to 538 BCE, after which they formed a Jewish commonwealth under priestly leadership; the Jews of Elephantine later wrote to the Persian governor of Yehud, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records. Mapped as Jewish, the usual English term after the exile, Swartz notes. Medium because the sources give no bounds for the province.⁴⁷⁸⁴⁸¹⁴⁸⁴
500 BCE	The kingdom of Judah	Present	Medium	Tradition's account	In the rabbinic count of years, which Eisen writes rests on Seder Olam, a second-century work the Encyclopaedia Judaica calls the earliest and most important surviving Jewish chronology, the First Temple stood until the Jewish year 3338 (422 or 423 BCE), and the Chabad.org timeline places Menasseh's reign over Judah from 3228 (533 BCE), after the last of the northern tribes went into exile in 3205 (556 BCE). So at this step the tradition's account, in the count Eisen describes Torah-observant Jews as following, has the kingdom of Judah in its land before the exile, in the words of the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible), "from Geba to Beer-sheba" (2 Kings 23:8). Medium because that phrase describes a later king's reign and the southern building block reaches far beyond Beer-sheba.⁴⁸⁵⁴⁷¹⁴⁷²⁷⁴⁸⁴⁴⁷⁴
500 BCE to 1000 CE	Djerba	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The local tradition, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Djerba entry records, holds that Jews came to Djerba in Solomon's reign and founded the Big Quarter (al-Hara al-Kabira), and that a family of priests fleeing Jerusalem in 70 CE brought one of the Temple's gates to the island. The rabbinic count, as the Chabad.org timeline gives it, places Solomon's reign in 837 to 797 BCE, so the shape begins at 500 BCE, and the quarter the tradition says they founded is read as continuing to 1000 CE, the last step before the shared shape. The entry gives no historians' date for the community's beginnings; its record of events starts with persecution under the Almohads in the 12th century, and the historians' sources found place no community there at these steps. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition names a reign, not a year.⁴⁸⁶⁴⁷¹⁴⁸⁷
250 BCE	Elephantine and Syene (Aswan)	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Elephantine entry writes that the papyri's account of the Jewish community there ends in 399 BCE, that it is not certain whether the colony persisted after Persian rule in Egypt ended, and that the Macedonians at the beginning of the Greek period probably did not dispense with the Jewish guards on the southern frontier; Stern writes that by the first century CE the Jews of Roman Egypt lived in all the cities and border districts from Alexandria to Syene, today's Aswan. Neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews at Elephantine and Syene a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Elephantine in the Aswan block.⁴⁸¹⁴⁸⁸⁴⁸²
250 BCE	Galilee	Present	Low	Both	Avi-Yonah writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that when Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Galilee in 732 BCE some of its Israelite inhabitants were deported but the remaining remnant renewed its relations with Jerusalem in the time of Josiah, that nothing is known of Galilee under the Babylonians and Persians, that according to I Maccabees there were Jewish settlements in western Galilee, which Simeon evacuated, and others that remained in eastern Galilee, and that Galilee, joined to the Hasmonean kingdom in 104 BCE, rapidly became completely Jewish; he records no end of the remnant between. The row reads two dated mentions of Israelites and Jews in Galilee a century or more apart, of 732 and 104 BCE, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁴⁸³
250 BCE to 1 CE	Judea	Present	Medium	Both	Swartz describes Judea under Greek and then Roman rule, with the Second Temple standing until 70 CE; the Chabad.org timeline dates the Second Temple from its completion in the year 3412 of the rabbinic count (349 BCE) to its destruction in 3829 (69 CE). Eisen writes that the gap between the rabbinic and historians' dates narrows to 20 to 25 years by Alexander's conquests and almost disappears by the Second Temple's destruction, so from this step one shape is drawn. Medium because the sources give no bounds for Judea.⁴⁷⁸⁴⁷¹⁴⁸⁵⁴⁸⁴
250 BCE to 1 CE	San'a, Tan'im, and Dhamar	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Jews of Yemen hold, Tobi writes, that a large group left Jerusalem some years before the First Temple's destruction, following Jeremiah's prophecies, settled first at places such as San'a, Tan'im, and Dhamar, and refused Ezra's call to return. The rabbinic count, as the Chabad.org timeline gives it, places the destruction in 423 BCE, so the shape begins at 250 BCE, and the community the tradition describes, staying in Yemen, is read as continuing to 1 CE, the last step before the shared shape. Tobi finds no documents or other reliable sources on the beginning; the first certain evidence, tombs of Himyari Jews at Beth She'arim from the early third century CE, shows Jewish settlements in Yemen by the second half of the second century, and he concludes that Jews came south after the Second Temple's destruction in 70 CE. The historians' sources found place no community there at these steps. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition dates the departure only by the destruction, and Tan'im is not placed.⁴⁸⁹⁴⁷¹⁴⁹⁰⁴⁹¹
250 BCE to 500 CE	Toledo	Present	Low	Tradition's account	A Jewish tradition from the period of Muslim rule, Beinart writes, held the Jewish settlement in Toledo to be the oldest in the Iberian peninsula, and Isaac Abrabanel accepted that its first settlers were exiles from the tribes of Judah and Benjamin who came after the First Temple's destruction, which the rabbinic count, as the Chabad.org timeline gives it, places in 423 BCE. The settlement the tradition describes, the oldest in the peninsula, is read as continuing to 500 CE, the last step before the shared shape. Beinart finds no substantive information on the settlement's beginnings and writes that Jews probably established themselves there when the town became the capital of the Visigoths, which he does not date, or during the preceding fourth to fifth centuries CE; since an arrival dated only by centuries is not read for a step inside them, the historians' sources found place no community there at these steps. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition dates the settlers' coming only by the destruction.⁴⁹²⁴⁷¹⁴⁹³
250 BCE to 750 CE	Babylonia	Present	Medium	Both	Stern describes Babylonian Jewry as ancient and extremely numerous, a majority in some of its regions and cities, with a considerable population at Seleucia on the Tigris, and writes that Antiochus III (223 to 187 BCE) settled 2,000 Babylonian Jewish families in Asia Minor. The Iraq entry writes that the Babylonian Talmud was composed and sealed in the academies of Sura and Pumbedita, which began to prosper under Muslim rule and were moved to Baghdad in the ninth and tenth centuries. Medium because the sources describe Babylonia broadly and do not place the academies by modern names; the building blocks follow Babylon, in Babil, and Seleucia, which Natural Earth's outline puts in Babil while GeoNames lists it under Baghdad, so both blocks are taken.⁴⁸⁸⁴³²⁴⁷⁸⁴⁸⁰⁴⁹⁴
250 BCE to 1900	Alexandria	Present	High	Both	Jews settled in Alexandria at the beginning of the third century BCE, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, and Stern calls it one of the largest Jewish centers in the world in Roman times. The community lasted through the Middle Ages, shrank under the Mamluks and after the plague of 1602, and prospered again in the first half of the 19th century, with rabbis listed into the 1900s. High because the entry follows the community through each period.⁴⁹⁵⁴⁸⁸⁴⁹⁶
1 CE	Cyprus and Crete	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry quotes Philo's list of Jewish communities, which it says reflects the situation during the first century CE, a span that contains this step; Philo writes that the mainlands were full of Jewish colonies, and so were the most highly esteemed islands, Euboea, Cyprus, and Crete. Stern, in the Diaspora entry, writes that there were many Jews in the islands of the eastern Mediterranean, that the first Jewish settlement among them was in Cyprus, and that many Jews lived in Crete. Euboea is drawn with Central Greece in the row for Greece and Macedonia. Medium because the entries date the islands' communities only to the century.⁴⁹⁷⁴⁸⁸⁴⁹⁸
1 CE	Cyrene and Berenice	Present	High	Both	Applebaum, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, writes that inscriptions from the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and Nero at Berenice (Benghazi) show a wealthy, well-organized Jewish community with its own amphitheater and a synagogue, and that a Jew held municipal office at Cyrene under Nero; the Cyrene entry records Augustus and Agrippa restoring the rights of Cyrene's Jews in 14 BCE. High because inscriptions from Augustus's reign date the Berenice community to this step, and the Cyrene entry dates Augustus and Agrippa's intervention for Cyrene's Jews to 14 BCE, 14 years before it.⁴⁹⁹⁵⁰⁰⁴⁸⁸⁵⁰¹⁵⁰²
1 CE	Egypt beyond Alexandria (the Fayyum, Thebes, Edfu, and Syene)	Present	Medium	Both	Stern writes that by the first century CE the Jews of Roman Egypt lived in all the cities and border districts from Alexandria to Syene in Upper Egypt, numbering a million by Philo's figure, and that their number presumably peaked under the Julio-Claudian emperors. He cites papyri from the towns and villages of the Fayyum and ostraca from Edfu and Thebes as evidence of Jewish settlement there. Medium because he dates the papyri and ostraca only broadly; the building blocks follow the Fayyum, Thebes, Edfu, and Syene (Aswan), and by this site's check of Natural Earth's outline the Thebes point falls in Qina.⁴⁸⁸⁵⁰³⁵⁰⁴⁵⁰⁵⁵⁰⁶
1 CE	Galilee	Prevalent	Medium	Both	Avi-Yonah writes that Galilee, joined to the Hasmonean kingdom by Judah Aristobulus I in 104 BCE, rapidly became completely Jewish, and that Herod Antipas founded Tiberias there; he adds that the activities of Jesus and the early Christian apostles had no effect on the Jewishness of Galilee. Prevalent because his statement that Galilee became completely Jewish soon after 104 BCE is carried to this step by his statement on the time of Jesus and the apostles; medium because the building block also takes in places he does not describe.⁴⁸³⁵⁰⁷⁵⁰⁸
1 CE to 250 CE	Greece and Macedonia	Present	Medium	Both	Stern writes that in Philo's day Jews lived in most of the important districts of Greece, among them Thessaly, Boeotia, Macedonia, Attica, and most of the Peloponnesus, that Acts names communities in Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth, and that inscriptions attest settlements at Patrae (Patras). The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that, apart from Cyprus, Greek Jews suffered no particular upheaval in the Roman period and that this settlement became the foundation of Jewish settlement in the Byzantine period, from 330 CE. Medium because the sources name districts in a broad area, and the 250 CE step rests on that general statement; 500 CE has a row of its own.⁴⁸⁸⁴⁹⁷⁵⁰⁹⁵¹⁰⁴⁰²⁴⁰⁰⁵¹¹¹⁷¹
1 CE to 250 CE	Syria and Asia Minor	Present	Medium	Both	Stern writes that Josephus describes Syria as the country with the highest percentage of Jewish inhabitants, with important centers at Antioch and Damascus, that, according to Philo, numerous Jews lived in Asia Minor, where a Roman consul made his confirmation of their rights known to the authorities of Ephesus, and that from the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 to 161) the Jews regained a strong position in the empire's economic life. Swartz names Asia Minor among the Diaspora's main centers in the first century. Medium because the sources name cities in a broad region, and the building blocks follow Antioch, Damascus, and Ephesus.⁴⁸⁸⁴⁷⁸⁵¹²⁵¹³⁵¹⁴
1 CE to 1900	Rome	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica writes that the first nucleus of a Jewish community in Rome probably consisted of Jews arriving at the end of the second and the start of the first century BCE, joined by prisoners Pompey brought in 61 BCE. The entry follows the community through its catacombs, the scholars of tenth-century Rome, and the ghetto from the 16th century until 1870, when the Jews of Rome gained equal legal standing. High because the entry traces the community in each period.⁵¹⁵⁴⁸⁸⁴⁷⁸⁵¹⁶
250 CE to 500 CE	Media and Elam (Sassanid Persia)	Present	Medium	Both	Under the Sassanid dynasty (226 to 642), Fischel writes, the Jewish Diaspora in Persia grew considerably, and the Babylonian Talmud gives glimpses of Jewish settlements beyond Babylonia, in Media and Elam, in cities such as Nehavend, Hamadan, Ahwaz, Susa, and Tustar. Medium because the source names the cities from the Talmud's glimpses without dates, and the building blocks follow Hamadan, Susa, and Ahwaz.⁵¹⁷⁵¹⁸¹⁰²⁵¹⁹
250 CE to 750 CE	Shingly (Cranganore)	Present	Low	Tradition's account	According to Kochi's local historical traditions, Katz writes, Jews set sail when the Romans destroyed Jerusalem in 70 CE and reached Shingly, the Jews' name for Cranganore, where the local king gave them land for synagogues and coconut estates; the settlement is read as continuing to 750 CE, the last step before the shared shape. Katz writes that the history of the early settlements is less clear: he cites Jerome, in the fourth century, on Jewish communities in India, and ibn Wahab, in the ninth, on the Jewish community of Cranganore. The historians' sources found place no community at Cranganore at these steps. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is.⁵²⁰²⁶⁹³³⁴
250 CE to 1600	Navgaon, on the Konkan coast	Present	Low	Tradition's account	The Bene Israel's original tradition, as they told it to Christian missionaries early in the 19th century, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bene Israel entry records, is that they descend from seven men and seven women who survived a shipwreck off Navgaon, about 26 miles south of Bombay, some 1,600 to 1,800 years before Wilson printed it in 1847; the shape follows this, the earliest recorded form of the tradition, so it begins at 250 CE, and the survivors' descendants are read as continuing to 1600, the last step before the shared shape. Later writers in the community argued for an arrival between 740 and 500 BCE or in the persecution under Antiochus Epiphanes (175 to 163 BCE). The entry writes that the group remained unknown to outsiders except for casual references, and Katz dates their joining the wider Jewish community to the middle of the 18th century; the historians' sources found date no Bene Israel community there before then. The block is drawn in both accounts from 1700, from Gordon's geography of 1699, which writes that there were Jews in most of the seaport towns of the peninsula. Low, as every shape drawn for a community's tradition alone is; the tradition's dating is approximate.⁵²¹²⁶⁹⁵²²
250 CE to 1900	Galilee	Present	Medium	Both	Avi-Yonah writes that Galilee was the stronghold of Judaism in the land through the Mishnah and Talmud periods, with the Sanhedrin finally at Tiberias, and that its Jewish villages kept diminishing but some lasted until the time of the Crusades. The Encyclopaedia Judaica records a community at Safed in the 11th and 13th centuries, 300 families in 1481, 716 Jewish taxpaying families in 1548, a sharp decline by 1695, and 6,620 Jews in 1895. Medium because the medieval community was small and the sources name few of its places.⁴⁸³⁵²³⁵⁰⁸⁵²⁴
250 CE to 1900	Yemen	Present	Medium	Both	The Jews of Yemen hold, Tobi writes, that a large group left Jerusalem some years before the First Temple's destruction and settled first at places such as San'a, while the first certain evidence, tombs of Himyari Jews at Beth She'arim, shows Jews in Yemen by the second half of the second century CE. He dates the Himyarite king Abikarib's adoption of Judaism to 384 and follows the Jews of San'a through 1667, 1762, and 1872 to their emigration in 1949 to 1951. The tradition's own account is drawn as a shape of its own at the earlier steps; medium because the building blocks follow San'a alone.⁴⁸⁹⁴⁹⁰
500 CE	Damascus	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Damascus entry describes, from talmudic literature, the Jews of Damascus and the Jewish communities near it, without a year, and next names the city's Jews when the Persians took Damascus in 613. Stern, in the Diaspora entry, writes that the Jews regained a strong position in the empire's economic life from the reign of Antoninus Pius (138 to 161), in relations that lasted until the beginning of the fourth century, a record for the empire as a whole and so for the places in it, which carries Damascus at 250 CE. The row reads that record and the record of 613, more than a century apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁵²⁵⁴⁸⁸⁵¹³
500 CE	Greece	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that the Roman-period settlement of Greek Jews became the foundation of Jewish settlement in the Byzantine period, from 330 CE; that Justinian I (527 to 565) left the Jews' legal status, set in Theodosius II's code of 438, basically unaltered; and that Byzantine Jewry is assumed to have continued in the seventh century in the status it held in the Roman period, as urban life, and with it the main centers of Jewish population, was preserved, Greece's towns being hardly affected by the Slavic incursions. The row reads these statements as carrying the districts where the sources place Jews in the Roman period to this step; Salonika has a row of its own. Low because the statements are for the whole empire and name no Greek town but Salonika near this step.⁴⁹⁷⁵⁰⁹⁵¹⁰⁴⁰⁰⁵¹¹¹⁷¹
500 CE to 750 CE	Aleppo	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Aleppo entry writes that Jewish settlement there has continued unbroken since Roman times, and records the city's most ancient synagogue built in the fourth century, a Jewish quarter before the Muslim conquest of 636, and an inscription of 834 on the great synagogue. Medium because the entry gives no year near these steps; the row rests on its statement of unbroken settlement.⁵²⁶⁵²⁷
500 CE to 750 CE	Asia Minor	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that from the end of the Roman republic there is clear evidence of Jews in most of the important cities of Asia Minor and in Bithynia, Pontus, and Cappadocia, and that, since no grave political crisis overtook them, their development could continue undisturbed; the Ottoman Empire entry records the Jewish population of Asia Minor deported to Istanbul over a period of 20 years after 1453, and calls the Jews of Bursa old inhabitants of the country. None of these entries records an end of the community in these blocks between. The row reads two records of Jews in Asia Minor many centuries apart, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The blocks are Asia Minor as this site reads Gordon's Natolia. The Izmir block, which holds Smyrna and Ephesus, is drawn with them: the Izmir entry writes that during the Middle Ages the number of Jews in Smyrna decreased and "they may have disappeared completely from the town," words that record no end, and that the Spanish exiles of the 16th century found a small Romaniot (Greek-speaking) community there.⁴⁸⁸¹⁴⁴⁵²⁸
500 CE to 1000 CE	The Hejaz	Present	Medium	Both	Hirschberg writes that Jewish tribes had lived for generations in the Hejaz, among them the Banu Nadir, Banu Qurayza, and Banu Qaynuqa of Yathrib (Medina), and that many Jews lived at Khaybar, Tayma, and the oases of Wadi al-Qura. At the end of the fourth century, he writes, the history of the Jews of Himyar meets that of the Jews of Yathrib, which the Himyarite king Abkarib besieged before he converted to Judaism under rabbinical influence. Arab authors and Genizah sources, he writes, attest many Jews at Wadi al-Qura and Tayma in the 10th and 11th centuries, after which information about them disappears. Medium because the source gives no figures and the building blocks are large.⁵²⁹⁵³⁰⁵³¹⁵³²
500 CE to 1250	Kastoria	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kastoria entry writes that there was a Jewish settlement in the Kastoria fortress town during the reign of Justinian (527 to 565), that in the 11th century the community was headed by Tobias b. Eliezer, and that the hakham, or rabbi, Leon Judah ben Moses Moskoni lived there in the 14th century; it records no end of the community between. The row reads the reign of Justinian from its nearer end for 500 CE, and these mentions of Jews in Kastoria, each a century or more from the next, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Kastoria in the Dytiki Makedonia block.⁵³³⁴⁴⁰
500 CE to 1250	Salonika (Thessalonica)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes, in its account of the seventh century, that Salonika's Jewish history was unbroken, names Jewish makers of silk garments there from as early as the seventh century, and records Benjamin of Tudela finding Jews there in the 12th century. Medium because the entry gives no year for Salonika near the 500, 750, and 1000 CE steps, where the row rests on its statement that the city's Jewish history was unbroken; for 1250 it places John III in Salonika by 1246 and assumes the community suffered from the Greek advances.⁴⁹⁷⁴⁰²
500 CE to 1250	Vidin	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Vidin entry writes that the fortress of Judaeus, which Justinian I (527 to 565) rebuilt near Vidin, confirms the presence of Jews at that time, and that after the expulsion of the Jews from Hungary in 1376 some of them settled in Vidin; it records no end of a Jewish presence between. The row reads the reign of Justinian from its nearer end for 500 CE, and two mentions of Jews at Vidin a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Vidin in the Vidin block.⁵³⁴⁵³⁵
750 CE to 1000 CE	Corinth, Thebes, and Sparta	Present	Low	Both	The Greece entry names Jews active from as early as the seventh century as dyers in Corinth and makers of silk garments in Thebes, records a tenth-century monk failing to persuade the people of Sparta to banish their Jews, and gives Benjamin of Tudela's 12th-century report of Jews in Corinth and Thebes. Low because the entry gives no year near either step for these towns, and the row reads its statements as one continuing presence.⁴⁹⁷⁵¹¹⁴⁰⁴
750 CE to 1000 CE	Jerusalem	Present	Medium	Both	After the Muslim conquest of 638, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Jerusalem entry records, a Genizah document shows the caliph Omar allowing 70 Jewish families to settle in the city, in the quarter southwest of the Temple area, and in its description of the city in the first four centuries of Muslim rule the Jews had two quarters. In the tenth century Aaron Ben Meir headed the Rabbanite academy, and Karaite scholars such as Salmon b. Jeroham and Japheth b. Ali worked there; medium because the entry says its sources on the Umayyad period and the first Abbasid century are too few for a general description.⁴³³⁴⁸⁴
750 CE to 1000 CE	Khuzistan (Ahwaz)	Present	Medium	Both	Fischel writes that after Baghdad became the Abbasid capital in 762 a wealthy class of Jewish merchants emerged in centers such as Ahwaz, and names Karaite communities in Tustar in the tenth century; he quotes the tenth-century geographer al-Muqaddasi that in Khuzistan "Christians are few and Jews not numerous," and names two Jewish merchants from Tustar who emigrated in the 11th century and rose in the service of the Fatimid caliphs in Egypt. Medium because the entry mentions Jews in Khuzistan only in passing; the building block follows Ahwaz.⁵¹⁷⁵¹⁹
750 CE to 1000 CE	Patras	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes that in Philo's day Jews lived in most of the important districts of Greece, Aetolia and most of the Peloponnesus among them, and that inscriptions attest Jewish settlement in the city of Patrae (Patras); the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Patras entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela reported 50 Jews there in the 12th century, and that under Byzantine rule the Jews of Patras owned land and farms. Neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Patras a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Patras in the Dytiki Ellada block.⁵³⁶⁴⁸⁸¹⁷¹
750 CE to 1250	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that in the seventh century there were Jews in Rhodes and Cyprus, that Jews were employed as tax collectors on Cyprus during the first two decades of the 12th century, and that Benjamin of Tudela, the 12th-century traveler, named Cyprus among the Greek islands on which Jews lived; in its account of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, it writes that there were also some Jews on Cyprus. It records no end of the community between these mentions. The row reads mentions of Jews on Cyprus a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.⁴⁹⁷
750 CE to 1250	Sepharad (Spain)	Present	Medium	Both	When the Muslims crossed into Spain in 711, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, there were no communities of openly professing Jews but many secret Jews, who welcomed them, and Umayyad Spain, from 755, became a refuge where Jewish numbers grew. From about 1000 to 1492, the entry on the Sephardim writes, the Jews of Spain were perhaps at least half of world Jewry. Medium because the sources speak of the peninsula as a whole; Portugal is included because, the Spain entry writes, Sepharad meant in the Middle Ages the entire peninsula and the Jews who lived there.⁵³⁷⁵³⁸
750 CE to 1250	The area of Fez	Present	Medium	Both	The earliest epigraphic evidence of Jews in Morocco, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, is second-century CE tombstones at Volubilis, between Fez and Meknes; the Arab conquest did not eliminate the Jews or the Judaized Berbers, and when Idris II (791 to 828) made Fez his capital he authorized Jews of all origins to settle there. The entry records a pogrom in Fez in 1033, Isaac Alfasi's departure from Fez for Cordoba in 1088, and a Merinid sultan's protection of the Jews in 1275. Medium because the source places the early community only by these two towns.⁵³⁹⁵⁴⁰⁵⁴¹
750 CE to 1250	Thessaly	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes that in Philo's day Jews lived in most of the important districts of Greece, among them Thessaly, and Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that by the register of 1506 Yenişehir (Larissa), in Thessaly, had twenty Jewish households from Spain; the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that Greek was still spoken until recently by the Jews of Thessaly, among others, and no source in hand records an end of Thessaly's Jewish community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Thessaly a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Thessaly in the Thessalia block.⁴⁸⁸¹⁵³⁴⁹⁷⁵⁰⁹
750 CE to 1700	Persia (Hamadan and Isfahan)	Present	Medium	Both	In the first six centuries of Islamic rule (642 to 1258), Fischel writes, the Jewish Diaspora spread into all the provinces of Persia; Abu Isa, in the time of the caliph Abd al-Malik (died 705), seems to have gained a following among the Jews of Isfahan, his disciple was Yudghan of Hamadan, and in the 12th century Hamadan, which had a yeshivah, seems with Isfahan to have been the cultural center of the Persian Diaspora. Under the Safawids (1502 to 1736) European travelers found Jews in "all the cities of Persia," and the Jews of Isfahan led Persian Jewry. Medium because for 1250 the entry has only its span for the first six Islamic centuries and 12th-century reports, among them Benjamin of Tudela's figures, which Fischel calls unreliable and exaggerated, and for Hamadan under the Safawids it adds only pilgrimages to the tomb of Mordecai and Esther; from 1800, under the Kajar dynasty, the two towns have a row of their own.⁵¹⁷⁵¹⁸⁵⁴²
750 CE to 1900	Damascus	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Damascus entry records the Jews treated tolerantly under the Umayyad caliphs (661 to 750), records of the city's Jewish court for 933, Al-Harizi's visit in 1217, 500 Jewish families in 1495, Jews fleeing from Safed to Damascus in 1604, a traveler's estimate of 4,000 Jews in 1848, and 10,000 in 1900. High because the entry follows the community through every step, with years near most of them; for 1250 it describes Ayyubid and Mamluk rule (its nearest years are 1217 and 1286), for 1700 Jews from Persia, Bukhara, India, and Iraq settling there in the 18th century, and for 1800 its nearest year is 1822.⁵²⁵⁵¹³
1000 CE	Asia Minor	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that from the end of the Roman republic there is clear evidence of Jews in most of the important cities of Asia Minor, whose development could continue undisturbed; the Ottoman Empire entry records the Jewish population of Asia Minor deported to Istanbul over a period of 20 years after 1453. None of these entries records an end of the community in these blocks between. The row reads two records of Jews in Asia Minor many centuries apart, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are Asia Minor as this site reads Gordon's Natolia, without Bursa, which has a row of its own. The Izmir block, which holds Smyrna and Ephesus, is drawn with them: the Izmir entry writes that during the Middle Ages the number of Jews in Smyrna decreased and "they may have disappeared completely from the town," words that record no end, and that the Spanish exiles of the 16th century found a small Romaniot (Greek-speaking) community there.⁴⁸⁸¹⁴⁴⁵²⁸
1000 CE	Balkh, Khorezm, and Samarkand	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bukhara entry writes that there is evidence that Jewish communities in Central Asia flourished from the 9th to the 12th centuries, particularly in Balkh, Khorezm, and Samarkand, and recognized the authority of the exilarch in Baghdad. Medium because the entry dates these communities only by centuries.⁵⁴³¹³⁴⁵⁴⁴⁵⁴⁵
1000 CE	Basra	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Basra entry writes that in the tenth century, when the academy of Sura closed, its last Gaon settled in Basra, and that until about 1150 the Jews of Basra continued to direct their questions on religious matters to the heads of the yeshivah in Baghdad. Medium because the entry dates the community near this step only by century. GeoNames places Basra in the Al-Basrah block.⁵⁴⁶²³⁷
1000 CE	Kairouan	Present	High	Both	Corcos writes that the Jewish community of Kairouan became the leading Jewish economic and cultural center in North Africa in the Middle Ages, with detailed information from the ninth century, an academy known throughout the Jewish world, and a new method of study brought by Hushiel b. Elhanan toward the end of the tenth century. The sack of the town in 1057 ended Kairouan as a Jewish intellectual center, and the entry records no Jews there from 1160 until shortly after 1881, so this row covers only this step; high because the entry dates the community on both sides of it.⁵⁴⁷⁵⁴⁸
1000 CE to 1250	Bursa	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bursa entry writes that, according to seven Hebrew inscriptions from 820 CE, Jews lived in Bursa in the Byzantine period, and that when the Ottomans captured the city in 1326 its inhabitants left but the Jews returned shortly thereafter; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Bursa a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Bursa in the Bursa block.⁵⁴⁹⁵⁵⁰
1000 CE to 1900	Aleppo	Present	High	Both	The Aleppo entry names the community's leader from 1015 to 1029, Jewish tombstones of 1217 to 1231, Obadiah of Bertinoro's report on the city's Jews in 1488, an estimate of about 1,000 Jewish families about 1600, 875 families in 1695, an estimate of 3,000 Jews in 1803, and 3,500 Jews in 1847 and 10,200 in 1881. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁵²⁶⁵²⁷
1000 CE to 1900	Cranganore and Cochin	Present	High	Both	Katz writes that ibn Wahab described the Jewish community of Cranganore, near Kochi, in the ninth century, and that in 1001 the Cheraman Perumal emperor gave copper plates chartering an autonomous Jewish principality to Joseph Rabban, whom Kochi's local traditions place at Shingly, the Jews' name for Cranganore; those traditions date the first arrivals to after 70 CE. After a flood in 1341 the community moved to Kochi, where it built the Paradesi synagogue in 1568, and its leaders, the mudaliars, served the rajah until British rule in the 19th century. High because the entries record the community at each stage from the ninth century on.²⁶⁹⁵²⁰³³⁴⁵⁵¹
1000 CE to 1900	Fars (Shiraz)	Present	Medium	Both	Fischel names Shiraz among the leading centers where a wealthy class of Jewish merchants emerged after Baghdad became the Abbasid capital in 762, quotes the tenth-century geographer al-Muqaddasi that "in the province of Fars the Zoroastrians are more numerous than the Jews," and gives Benjamin of Tudela's 12th-century figure of 10,000 Jews in Shiraz, which he calls unreliable. Under the Safawids he names Karaite communities, especially in Kazerun, and, in the 19th century, Jews from Shiraz among the Persian-speaking Jews who set out for the Holy Land, with an Alliance school opening there in 1903. Medium because the entry mentions Jews in Fars only at long intervals.⁵¹⁷⁵⁵²⁵⁵³
1000 CE to 1900	Fustat (Old Cairo)	Present	Medium	Both	For a thousand years, Cambridge University Library writes, the Jewish community of Fustat, Old Cairo, placed its worn-out books and other writings in the storeroom of the Ben Ezra Synagogue, until Solomon Schechter took up the manuscripts in 1896 to 1897. The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Alexandria entry names the Jews of Cairo in the Middle Ages and fishermen from Cairo who joined the Jews of Alexandria in the second half of the 18th century. Medium because the library gives a round span rather than dates for each period.⁵⁵⁴⁴⁹⁵⁵⁵⁵
1000 CE to 1900	Iraq (Jewish Babylonia)	Present	High	Both	With the Muslim empire centered in Baghdad, Swartz writes, the political center of Jewry shifted to Iraq, Jewish Babylonia, whose academies eventually set the religious and legal agenda for Jewish communities across the Islamic world; the Encyclopaedia Judaica records that Baghdad, founded by al-Mansur (754 to 775), became the seat of the exilarch and that the academies of Sura and Pumbedita moved there in the ninth and tenth centuries. It records a long decline of the Baghdad community after the Mongol conquest of 1258 and its recovery at the end of the 18th century, with the community recognized as a millet in 1849. High because the entries follow the community through each period; Basra, which the entry names only after 1258, is left out.⁴⁷⁸⁴³²⁵⁵⁶
1000 CE to 1900	Speyer, Worms, and Mainz (ShUM)	Present	High	Both	A Jewish community in Mainz is indisputable from the middle of the tenth century, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, and UNESCO calls the ShUM sites of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz, in Rhineland-Palatinate, the cradle of Ashkenazic Jewish tradition; Swartz writes that Ashkenaz was the Hebrew name for the communities of France and Germany. The Mainz entry follows the community through the Middle Ages, records Jews settling in Mainz again in the decade after 1356, and writes that only a few Jews lived in the city in the early modern era, with the rabbinate at nearby Weisenau from 1513, a community reconstituted in 1583, and a split over reform in 1853; high because the entry traces Jews in or near Mainz in each period.⁵⁵⁷⁵⁵⁸⁴⁷⁸⁵⁵⁹
1250	Amadiya	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kurdistan entry records a synagogue built at Amadiya in 1228, and Benjamin of Tudela's report, from a visit about 1170, of 25,000 Jews in Amadiya alone, one of the figures the Persia entry calls unreliable and exaggerated. Low because the nearest dated mention falls 22 years before this step, and the Kurdistan entry says there is no clear information on the Jews' situation from the 13th to the 15th centuries.⁵⁶⁰⁵¹⁷⁵⁶¹
1250	Asia Minor	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that from the end of the Roman republic there is clear evidence of Jews in most of the important cities of Asia Minor, whose development could continue undisturbed; the Ottoman Empire entry records the Jewish population of Asia Minor deported to Istanbul over a period of 20 years after 1453, and writes that Angora (Ankara), taken in the reign of Murad I (1360 to 1389), had a Jewish community from early times. None of these entries records an end of the community in these blocks between. The row reads two records of Jews in Asia Minor many centuries apart, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are Asia Minor as this site reads Gordon's Natolia, without Bursa and Gallipoli, which have rows of their own. The Izmir block, which holds Smyrna and Ephesus, is drawn with them: the Izmir entry writes that during the Middle Ages the number of Jews in Smyrna decreased and "they may have disappeared completely from the town," words that record no end, and that the Spanish exiles of the 16th century found a small Romaniot (Greek-speaking) community there.⁴⁸⁸¹⁴⁴⁵²⁸
1250	Balkh, Khorezm, and Bukhara	Present	Low	Both	The Bukhara entry writes that 13th-century data attest the remnants of a community in Balkh and a small community in Khorezm, and that a Jewish presence in Bukhara is first mentioned in that century. Low because the entry dates these mentions only to the 13th century and describes the communities as remnants.⁵⁴³⁵⁴⁴⁵⁴⁵⁵⁶²
1250	Basra	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Iraq entry writes that after the Mongol occupation of 1258 the Jewish communities of Baghdad and Basra did not recover for many generations. Medium because the entry mentions Basra's community near this step only once, 8 years after it, in describing its decline.⁴³²²³⁷
1250	Belgrade	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Belgrade entry writes that several Jews from Italy and Hungary settled in Belgrade in the 13th and 14th centuries; the row reads that span as carrying this step. Low because the entry names only several Jews and gives no year. GeoNames places Belgrade in the Grad Beograd block.⁵⁶³⁵⁶⁴
1250	Bohemia	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Prague entry writes that by the 13th century the Jewish community of Prague owned a cemetery outside the city walls, which also served other Jewish communities in Bohemia, and the 13th century contains this step. The entry's statement places Jewish communities in Bohemia, and so in the places inside it; the blocks are Bohemia as the row for 1700 bounds it, and Prague has a row of its own. Medium because the entry names no town outside Prague and dates these communities only to the century.⁵⁶⁵
1250	Bougie	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Algeria entry records Jews of Languedoc and even Marseilles living in Bougie, the Algerian harbor town, from 1248. Medium because the entry mentions them only once, two years before this step.⁵⁶⁶⁵⁶⁷
1250	Corfu	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Corfu entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela found only one Jew in Corfu about 1160, and that the number of Jews there increased during the 13th and 14th centuries with the arrival of newcomers from the mainland. The row reads that span as carrying this step. Medium because the entry gives no year near it. GeoNames places Corfu in the Ionioi Nisoi block.⁵⁶⁸⁵⁶⁹
1250	Crete, Corinth, Coron, Modon, Patras, and Chios	Present	Medium	Both	In its section on the Fourth Crusade and the late Byzantine period (1204 to 1453), the Greece entry names Crete, Corinth, Coron, Modon, Patras, and Chios as the important Jewish communities after the Fourth Crusade. Medium because the entry dates these communities only to that period, not to a year near this step.⁴⁹⁷⁴⁹⁸⁵¹¹¹⁷¹⁵⁷⁰
1250	Gallipoli	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Gallipoli entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela, the 12th-century traveler, found 200 Jews in Gallipoli, and that they are also mentioned during the reign of Michael VIII Palaeologus in 1261. Medium because the entry mentions the community near this step once, 11 years after it. GeoNames places Gallipoli (Gelibolu) in the Çanakkale block.⁵⁷¹⁵⁷²
1250	London, Lincoln, York, Worcester, Cambridge, and Canterbury	Present	High	Both	Roth, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, records a "Parliament of Jews" drawn from the communities and held at Worcester in 1241, Aaron of York and Hagin of Lincoln named by the Crown as its officials for Jewish matters in 1236 and 1258, and the sacking from 1263 to 1266 of the communities of London, Cambridge, Canterbury, Worcester, and Lincoln, the dated record the entry gives for Cambridge and Canterbury near this step; Edward I expelled the Jews from England in 1290. High because the entry dates these communities from 14 years before to 16 years after this step.⁵⁷³⁵⁷⁴⁵⁷⁵⁵⁷⁶⁵⁷⁷⁵⁷⁸⁵⁷⁹
1250	Monastir (Bitola)	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Monastir entry writes that in the 12th century there were Greek-speaking Romaniot Jewish artisans and traders in the town, and that more Jews arrived after the expulsion from Hungary in the 14th century; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Monastir a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Monastir (Bitola) in the Bitola block.⁵⁸⁰⁵⁸¹
1250	Paris	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Paris entry dates the first documentary evidence of Jews there to 582, records the disputation on the Talmud held in Paris in 1240, and gives tax rolls of the Jews of Paris for 1292 and 1296. High because the entry dates the community on both sides of this step.⁵⁸²⁵⁸³
1250	Poland	Present	High	Both	Jews came to Poland mainly from the west and southwest, Ben-Sasson writes; they are recorded in Plock in 1237 and in Cracow about 1234, and the community of Kalisz, whose prince granted privileges in 1264, bought a cemetery in 1283. High because Ben-Sasson also dates a circle of Jewish merchants in Great Poland and Mazovia to the 12th century, from coins with Hebrew inscriptions, so the records for the towns begin after Jews were already in two of the three regions.⁵⁸⁴⁵⁸⁵⁵⁸⁶⁵⁸⁷
1250	Rhodes	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Rhodes entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela, the 12th-century traveler, found some 400 Jews in the city of Rhodes, and that some Jews fleeing Aragonese territory during the persecutions of 1280 went to Rhodes. Medium because the entry's nearest date falls 30 years after this step. GeoNames places Rhodes in the Notio Aigaio block.⁵⁸⁸⁵⁸⁹
1250	Thebes	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Thebes entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela, the 12th-century traveler, found 2,000 Jews in Thebes, who worked in silk dyeing, and that Jewish tombstones of the 14th to 16th centuries have been found there; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Thebes a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Thebes in the Stereá Elláda block.⁵⁹⁰⁴⁰⁴
1250	Troyes	Present	High	Both	Blumenkranz writes that an organized Jewish community collected taxes from its members in Troyes from the first half of the 11th century and that Jews there lent money from the beginning of the 13th century; Swartz names Rashi of Troyes (1040 to 1105) as the most famous exegete of Ashkenaz. High because the entry dates the community from the 11th century and its moneylending from the start of the century that holds this step.⁵⁹¹⁴⁷⁸⁵⁹²
1250 to 1500	Djerba	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Djerba entry records a colony of Jews from Djerba settling in Sicily in 1239, and next dates the island's Jews in 1519, when they suffered a persecution under the Spanish. Medium because the entry's dates fall 11 years before the 1250 step and 19 years after the 1500 step, and the row reads them as one continuing community.⁴⁸⁶⁴⁸⁷
1250 to 1500	Samarkand	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Samarkand entry writes that Jews are first mentioned there, from hearsay, by Benjamin of Tudela in the 12th century, as a large community, and that the community was apparently destroyed when the town was captured in 1598; its Bukhara entry writes that the Mongol invasions early in the 13th century apparently devastated the Jewish communities of Central Asia, without saying that Samarkand's ended. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Samarkand a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Samarkand in the Samarkand block.⁵⁹³⁵⁴³¹³⁴
1250 to 1600	Buda	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Hungary entry names Buda among the towns with important Jewish communities from the 12th century, and records Béla IV's privilege for the Jews of Hungary in 1251; it writes that Buda's community gained in importance in the 15th century, was renewed after the Ottoman conquest of 1541, and was one of the most important in the Ottoman Empire in the 17th century. Medium because the entry gives no year for Buda itself near 1250.¹⁷⁰⁵⁹⁴
1250 to 1700	Kaifeng	Present	High	Both	Jews arrived in Kaifeng, capital of Honan province, probably before 1127, Loewenthal writes, built their first synagogue in 1163, restored it in 1279, and rebuilt it in 1653; their stone inscriptions date from 1489 to 1679. High because the source dates the synagogue and the inscriptions from 1163 to 1679; the years after that are in a separate row.⁵⁹⁵⁵⁹⁶
1250 to 1900	Alsace	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Alsace entry names Jews in Haguenau, Obernai, and Rosheim from the beginning of the 13th century and in Colmar and Mulhouse later in that century, and describes Jews settling in the villages from the end of the 15th century to the middle of the 17th. It gives 522 Jewish families in 1689 and 3,910 in 1784, describes an expansion from 1844 to 1871, and records some 30 rabbinical posts in Alsace about 1900, besides those in Strasbourg and Colmar. High because the entry follows the community across every step.⁵⁹⁷⁵⁹⁸⁵⁹⁹⁶⁰⁰
1250 to 1900	Frankfurt on the Main	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Frankfurt entry writes that by around 1270 Frankfurt had again become a busy center of Jewish life, and that the ghetto had 250 registered inhabitants in 1520 and 2,200 in 1600. It records the Jewish quarter almost destroyed by fire in 1711, 3,298 Jews in 1817, the Orthodox association that elected Samson Raphael Hirsch its rabbi in 1851, and 21,974 Jews in 1900. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶⁰¹⁶⁰²
1250 to 1900	Prague	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Prague entry dates the first definite evidence of a Jewish community there to 1091, and records the Altneuschul (Old-New Synagogue) completed in 1270, about 600 Jews in 1522, about 6,000 at the beginning of the 17th century, a fire that destroyed more than 300 Jewish houses in 1689, Ezekiel Landau as chief rabbi from 1755 to 1793, over 10,000 Jews in 1848, and 27,289 in 1900. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁵⁶⁵⁶⁰³
1250 to 1900	Vienna	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Vienna entry records a charter of privileges for the community in 1238, 12 Jewish families there in 1512, a cemetery noted in 1582, a ghetto from 1624, and, after the Jews' readmission was proposed in 1693, wealthy Jews allowed to live there as "tolerated subjects," among them Samuel Oppenheimer, who regained the cemetery in 1696. It gives 520 Jews in 1777 and 9,731 in 1850, and records the Jewish Museum opened in 1896. High because the entry dates Jews in the city near every step, though at 1500 it gives only 12 families and at 1700 only wealthy households allowed to stay.⁶⁰⁴⁶⁰⁵
1500	Belgrade	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Belgrade entry writes that several Jews from Italy and Hungary settled in Belgrade in the 13th and 14th centuries, and that Sephardi Jews joined them after the Turkish conquest of 1521. Medium because the entry's nearest date falls 21 years after the step. GeoNames places Belgrade in the Grad Beograd block.⁵⁶³⁵⁶⁴
1500	Berlin	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Berlin entry records 23 instances of Jews taking up residence in Berlin between 1454 and 1475. Medium because the entry's nearest record of residence falls 25 years before this step.⁶⁰⁶⁶⁰⁷
1500	Bukhara	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bukhara entry writes that a Jewish presence in Bukhara is first mentioned in the 13th century, and that the town apparently became a center of Jewish life in Central Asia in the 16th century, without giving a year; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Bukhara a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Bukhara in the Bukhoro block.⁵⁴³⁵⁶²
1500	Bursa, Manisa, Tokat, Amasya, Ephesus, and Gallipoli	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry names Bursa, Manissa (Magnesia), Gallipoli, Tokat, Amasya, and Ephesus among the places where refugees from Spain, who arrived soon after 1492, established Spanish congregations; it writes that the Jews of Bursa were old inhabitants of the country, called Romaniots (Greek-speaking Jews), joined during the fifteenth century by Jews from France and Germany and refugees from Spain and Portugal, and that Gallipoli had a small Jewish community from early times. GeoNames places these towns in the blocks drawn. Medium because the entry dates the refugees' arrival, not the congregations' founding.¹⁴⁴⁵⁵⁰⁶⁰⁸⁶⁰⁹⁶¹⁰⁵¹⁴⁵⁷²
1500	Edirne (Adrianople)	Present	Medium	Both	Gökbilgin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1528, 28 years after this step, Edirne had 144 Muslim and 19 Christian quarters and eight Jewish congregations. Medium because the figure is for the city, drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1500	Kastoria, Valona, Monastir, Corfu, and Chios	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry names Kastoria, Valona, Monastir, Corfu, and Chios among the places where refugees from Spain, who arrived soon after 1492, established Spanish congregations. GeoNames places these towns in the blocks drawn. Medium because the entry dates the refugees' arrival, not the congregations' founding.¹⁴⁴⁴⁴⁰⁶¹¹⁵⁸¹⁵⁶⁹⁵⁷⁰
1500	Kavalla	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that with the flight of the Jews from Hungary in 1376 many Jews settled in the towns of Kavalla and Siderokastron, and its Kavalla entry records Hungarian Jews brought to Kavalla in 1529; neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Kavalla a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Kavala (Kavalla) just off the generalized coastline, nearest the Anatoliki Makedonia kai Thraki block.⁴⁹⁷⁶¹²⁶¹³
1500	Padua	Present	Medium	Both	Ravid records that when the enemies of Venice overran its mainland in 1509, Jewish moneylenders and other Jews living in Mestre, Padua, and elsewhere fled to Venice. Medium because the entry dates Jews in Padua only once, nine years after this step; it also names Jewish students at Padua's medical school, without a year.⁶¹⁴⁶¹⁵
1500	Poland	Present	Medium	Both	By the end of the 15th century, Ben-Sasson writes, more than 60 Jewish communities were known in Poland-Lithuania, from Wroclaw and Gdansk in the west to Kiev and Kamenets Podolski in the east, among them communities recorded at Plock (1237), Lvov (1356), Sandomierz (1367), and Poznan (1379). He also records that the Jews were expelled from Lithuania in 1495 and brought back in 1503, and that Wroclaw's community was expelled before 1454, so this step leaves out Lithuania, Kiev, and Wroclaw. Medium because the building blocks follow towns first recorded long before this step.⁵⁸⁴⁶¹⁶⁶¹⁷⁵⁸⁷⁶¹⁸⁶¹⁹⁶²⁰⁶²¹
1500	Venice	Present	Medium	Both	Ravid, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, writes that officially no Jew could stay in Venice for longer than 15 days at a time, with exceptions for merchants arriving by sea and for doctors, and that Jews who fled to Venice from the mainland in 1509 were allowed to stay. Medium because for this step the entry gives only those short stays and the refugees of 1509, nine years after it.⁶¹⁴⁶²²
1500	Vidin	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Vidin entry writes that Shalom Ashkenazi led the community when the Turks took Vidin in 1394 and founded a yeshivah, a school of Talmud study, there, and that refugees from Bavaria, who were expelled in 1470, also settled there. Medium because the entry's nearest date falls 30 years before the step. GeoNames places Vidin in the Vidin block.⁵³⁴⁵³⁵
1500 to 1600	Asia Minor	Present	Low	Both	Stern writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that from the end of the Roman republic there is clear evidence of Jews in most of the important cities of Asia Minor, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in Natolia, the former Asia Minor, a considerable number of Jews lived intermixed with its Christians. The Ottoman Empire entry records all the Jewish population of Asia Minor deported to Istanbul over a period of 20 years after 1453, a record that names the region, not a place, so this site does not read it as ending the community in any one place. The row reads Stern's and Gordon's statements, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, as two records of Jews in Asia Minor many centuries apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The same entry writes that Angora (Ankara), taken in the reign of Murad I (1360 to 1389), had a Jewish community from early times, and names a yeshivah, a school of Talmud study, at Angora in its account of Torah study after the expulsion from Spain, a passage whose dated examples run from 1521 to the beginning of the 17th century; it gives no year for Angora's yeshivah, so the passage is read as a mention, not as a span that dates the community to either step. The blocks are Asia Minor as this site reads Gordon's Natolia; Bursa, Manisa, Izmir, Gallipoli, Tokat, and Amasya have rows of their own at these steps.⁴⁸⁸¹⁴⁴⁶⁸
1500 to 1600	Bohemia	Present	Low	Both	The Prague entry writes that by the 13th century Prague's Jewish cemetery also served other Jewish communities in Bohemia, and Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Jews sent precious stones from the mountains of Bohemia proper into foreign parts; the Prague entry records no end of the Jewish communities in Bohemia outside Prague between them. The row reads two records of Jews in Bohemia a century or more apart, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason. The blocks are Bohemia as the row for 1700 bounds it, and Prague has a row of its own.⁵⁶⁵¹²⁷
1500 to 1600	Portugal (the New Christians)	Present	Low	Both	Lichtenstein writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Portugal entry that on March 19, 1497, all Jewish minors were forcibly baptized, and that some 20,000 Jews gathered at Lisbon to leave the country were baptized instead; the converts, officially called New Christians, were denied the right to emigrate in 1499, and among them Crypto-Judaism arose: attending church and conducting themselves outwardly as Catholics, they kept Jewish observances in secret. He records a list of these secret Jews presented to the king in 1527, within 30 years of 1500, and writes that during the centuries of the Portuguese Inquisition, from its reauthorization in 1536 to its abolition in 1821, a span that contains 1600, most of its victims were accused of Judaizing, that is, of keeping Jewish practice, and a constant flow of converts escaped abroad. This site draws such a community from a historians' source, as it draws Japan's hidden Christians, and draws Portugal as today's mainland districts, as at 1700. Low for a reason set for this case alone: this site draws Portugal's Jews who outwardly followed the Catholic religion at low confidence from 1500 to 1700, as Japan's hidden Christians are, the reading Decision 141, item 8, sets for 1700.⁶²³
1500 to 1600	Skopje (Üsküp)	Present	Low	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Skopje's non-Muslim men, who were Macedonians, Albanians, and a small number of Jews, rose from 1,507 in 1455 to 2,445 in 1569, and that in the sixteenth century Jewish and Ragusan merchants had set up trading colonies in the city; the row reads the counts of 1455 and 1569 as carrying 1500, and the sixteenth century as reaching 1600. Low because the source names the Jews only in passing; the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1500 to 1600	The Peloponnesus	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry writes that most of the refugees who arrived in the empire soon after 1492 settled in Istanbul, Salonika, Edirne, towns in the Peloponnesus, Egypt, and elsewhere; its Greece entry names Solomon Cohen of Zante and the Peloponnesus among the rabbis and scholars of Greece's smaller communities during the 16th and 17th centuries, and writes that during the Turkish period, which it dates 1453 to 1821, the Jews of the Peloponnesus engaged in peddling and tinsmithing. The row reads that period as carrying these steps. It ends at 1600 because the Peloponnese was not under Turkish rule at 1700: Hacısalihoğlu, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that Venice took the Morea between 1684 and 1686 and the Ottomans retook it in 1715. The Greece entry records that when Venice invaded the Peloponnese in 1685 the Jews abandoned Patras, and gives no dated mention of Jews in the Peloponnese between then and 1700. Medium because the entries name no town in the block for the Jews at these steps. GeoNames places the Peloponnese in the Peloponnisos block.¹⁴⁴⁴⁹⁷¹⁴⁵⁶²⁴
1500 to 1600	Thessaly and Patras	Present	Medium	Both	The Greece entry records Jews expelled from Navarre, Aragon, Naples, Provence, and elsewhere migrating to Greece in the late 15th and 16th centuries, the Sephardim bringing their language and customs to towns such as Trikkala, Larissa, and Volos, and names four congregations in Patras in the 16th century, among them a Greek one and an "Ancient Community" of Sicilian origin. Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that by the register of 1506, six years after the 1500 step, Yenişehir (Larissa) had twenty Jewish households from Spain, with eight newly arrived Jewish families besides. The Greece entry names Patras among the important communities of the Ottoman and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, a span that contains both steps. Medium because, apart from that register, the entries date these communities by century.⁴⁹⁷¹⁵³¹⁵⁴¹⁷¹
1500 to 1700	Algiers	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Algeria entry records relatives of Maghrebi Jewish merchants settling at Algiers, Spanish refugees of 1391 coming to Algeria, and the descendants of Simeon b. Zemah Duran making Algiers a religious and intellectual center; it writes that the communal organization set up in the 14th century lasted until 1830, and that Jews from Leghorn settled especially in Algiers in the 17th and 18th centuries. Medium because near these steps the entry dates the Algiers community only by century.⁵⁶⁶⁶²⁵
1500 to 1700	Basra	Present	Low	Both	The Basra entry writes that a small community continued to exist in the town after Tamerlane conquered Mesopotamia in 1393, and that the community regained its importance during the 18th century. The row reads that continuity as carrying these steps. Low because the entry gives no year for the community between 1393 and 1775. GeoNames places Basra in the Al-Basrah block.⁵⁴⁶²³⁷
1500 to 1700	Crete	Present	Medium	Both	In its account of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that on Crete the Jews played an important part in the transit trade, and that the island was known for its rabbis and scholars, notably the Capsali family and Delmedigo. The row reads that period as carrying these steps, as the Cyprus row reads the same passage; at 1800 the island is drawn with Turkey. Medium because the entry dates the island's community only to that period, not to a year near these steps.⁴⁹⁷⁴⁹⁸
1500 to 1700	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	In its account of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that there were also some Jews on Cyprus, and it names Eliezer b. Elijah ha-Rofeh Ashkenazi of Nicosia, Cyprus, among the scholars of Greece's smaller communities in the 18th century. The row reads that period as carrying these steps; at 1800 the island is drawn with Turkey. Low because the entry names no Jewish community on the island and gives no year there.⁴⁹⁷
1500 to 1700	Thebes	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry names Thebes, "renowned for its wisdom", among the important Jewish communities of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, a span the row reads as carrying these steps; its Thebes entry records Jewish tombstones of the 14th to 16th centuries there and an agreement made during the 17th century not to wear silken clothes for seven years, and writes that the community was destroyed as a result of the Greek rebellions against the Turks during the 18th century. GeoNames places Thebes in the Stereá Elláda block, drawn at 1800 for Chalcis. Medium because the entries give Thebes no year at these steps.⁴⁹⁷⁵⁹⁰⁴⁰⁴
1500 to 1900	Arta and Ioannina (Epirus)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry names Arta and Ioannina among the places where refugees from Spain, who arrived soon after 1492, established Spanish congregations, and records the Romaniot (Greek-speaking) community of Ioannina splitting in two in the second half of the 16th century; its Greece entry names Arta and Ioannina, the largest Romaniot community, among the important Jewish communities of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, and the row reads that period as carrying 1500 to 1800. The Ioannina entry writes that the sizable community there when the Turks took the town in 1431 continued to grow in succeeding generations, and for 1850 and 1900 records the rabbi Hayyim Shemuel Halevy in Ioannina from 1848 to 1881, a Jewish banker of the town elected to the first Ottoman national assembly in 1876, and 7,000 Jews there at the beginning of the 20th century. GeoNames places both towns in the Epirus block. Medium because the entries give few years for Arta.¹⁴⁴⁴⁹⁷⁶²⁶⁶²⁷¹⁷²
1500 to 1900	Beta Israel (Semien, Dambiya, and Gondar)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Beta Israel entry describes them as an ethno-religious group in Ethiopia attached to a form of Judaism based on the Bible and other writings, and records Ethiopian kings from Amda Siyon (1314 to 1344) onward seeking to subdue the Judaized population of Semien, Woggara, and Dambiya, until Susenyos (1607 to 1632) defeated the Beta Israel. It writes that the community remembers the Gondarine period (1632 to 1769) as one of peace, and records Western missionaries working among them from 1859 and the great famine of 1888 to 1892. The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1810), following Bruce's account of about 1770, writes that the province of Samen was mostly inhabited by Jews; that is a majority for one province within the block, from an account more than 10 years before 1800, so it adds no majority to the block. The eighth edition (1853) writes that a Jewish people it prints as Talashas lived in a district it prints as Lamen, which this site reads as the Falashas of Samen. High because the entries follow the community through every step; the building block follows Gondar and the districts around it.⁶²⁸¹³⁸¹³⁹⁶²⁹
1500 to 1900	Jerusalem	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Jerusalem entry records that Obadiah of Bertinoro found no more than 70 Jewish families there in 1488, before the arrival of the exiles from Spain, and about 300 Jewish families, nearly 1,200 people, at the end of the 17th century; the entry on the Sephardim writes that Sephardim came to outnumber the other communities, that Judah Hasid and the first Hasidic immigrants arrived in the 18th century, and that from 1842 the Sephardi chief rabbi was recognized as the hakham bashi, the officially recognized chief rabbi. The Jerusalem entry counts the city's people at the end of the 1880s as 43,000, among them 28,000 Jews and 7,000 Muslims; a town's figure decides for its block only where the town is the whole block, and the Jerusalem block is far larger than the city, so the block is drawn as present, as the Islam layer reads the same figure. High because the sources name the community in each century from the 15th to the 19th.⁴³³⁵³⁸⁴⁸⁴
1500 to 1900	Morocco	Present	Medium	Both	Jewish chroniclers describe the sultan's welcome to refugees from Spain and Portugal in 1492 and 1496, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records; exiles settled in ports such as Safi, Fez became their spiritual center, and in the 16th century Tetuan, Fez, Meknes, and Marrakesh had centers where Marranos returned to Judaism. From 1757 to the end of the 19th century, it writes, Jews acted as agents for the European powers, and their activities promoted communities such as Asfi (Safi), Tetuan, and Tangier. Medium because the source names towns rather than the extent of settlement.⁵³⁹⁵³⁸⁵⁴⁰⁵⁴¹⁶³⁰⁶³¹⁶³²
1500 to 1900	The Ottoman lands (Istanbul and Salonika)	Present	High	Both	Bayazid II (1481 to 1512) settled many Spanish and Portuguese refugees in Istanbul, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, and the entry on the Sephardim writes that the port of Salonika became a great center of Sephardim, with congregations representing the Spanish towns and districts they came from. The same entry follows these communities through the Shabbatean movement of the 1650s to the emigration of Sephardim from the Balkans and Asia Minor from 1900 on. High because the entries trace both cities through the period.¹⁴⁴⁵³⁸⁶³³⁴⁰²
1500 to 1900	Tripoli	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Libya entry cites a later source for 800 Jewish families fleeing Tripoli at the Spanish invasion of 1510, and records the kabbalist Simeon Labi in Tripoli from 1549 to 1580 and about 1,000 Jewish families, about a third of the town's people, in the mid-19th century; Libya's Jews were led by qa'ids from the second half of the 17th century until the Italian conquest of 1911. High because the entry dates the community near every step. By this site's check of Natural Earth's 1:10m outline, the Tripoli point falls in the Tajura' wa an Nawahi al Arba building block.⁴⁹⁹⁶³⁴
1600	Belgrade	Present	Low	Both	The Belgrade entry records Sephardi Jews joining the city's Jews after the Turkish conquest of 1521, and a community of 800 in 1663, when its yeshivah, a school of Talmud study, was widely known; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Belgrade a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Belgrade in the Grad Beograd block.⁵⁶³⁵⁶⁴
1600	Chios	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Chios entry records several synagogues on the island in 1549 and names Isaac b. Abraham Algazi as rabbi of the community during the first half of the 17th century. Medium because the entry dates the community near this step only by half-century. GeoNames places Chios in the Voreio Aigaio block.⁶³⁵⁵⁷⁰
1600	Edirne (Adrianople)	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry writes that after the expulsion from Spain the yeshivot of Adrianople, its schools of Talmud study, included the yeshivah of Joseph Fasi, and that under Ibrahim I (1640 to 1648), when the sultan's court moved from Istanbul to Edirne, many Jews who did business with the sultan moved there; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Edirne a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.¹⁴⁴¹⁶⁰
1600	Pisa	Present	Medium	Both	The Leghorn entry records that in 1614 the Leghorn community seceded from the community of Pisa, on which it had until then depended. Medium because the entry mentions the Pisa community only once, 14 years after this step.⁶³⁶⁶³⁷
1600	Sofia and Plovdiv	Present	Medium	Both	Şahin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1570 Sofia had four Jewish quarters among forty-one, its Jews 6 percent of about 6,900 people, and that Stephan Gerlach found more than 300 Jews there in 1578; Kiel writes that fifty-four Jewish families from Spain lived in Plovdiv (Filibe) in 1568, and that in 1576 the town had one Jewish quarter. Medium because the figures are for two cities, drawn as the blocks that hold them.¹⁶⁷¹⁴⁸¹⁶⁸¹⁴⁹
1600	The Balkans	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Hungary entry writes that the Ottomans' first, temporary conquest of Buda in 1526 led many of its Jewish inhabitants to join the retreating Turks, so that congregations of Hungarian Jews formed within the important communities of the Balkans; the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume dated 1810, writes that a considerable part of the empire's people were Jews and mercantile Christians from different parts of Europe, called Franks, and is drawn across European Turkey at 1800. Each is a record for a larger area that contains these blocks, the two more than a century apart, and no source in hand records an end of the community in them between. The row reads them as carrying the step between; low for that reason, as the Islam layer reads the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 and the same article for Montenegro. The blocks are the Balkan peninsula as the Islam layer reads it, with Bosnia, less the towns and lands with Jewish rows of their own at this step; the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Ohrid writes that Ohrid's Jews were moved to Istanbul in the second half of the fifteenth century, before the earlier of the two records.¹⁷⁰¹⁸⁷¹⁵²
1600	Tokat and Amasya	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ottoman Empire entry names Tokat and Amasya among the places where refugees from Spain, who arrived soon after 1492, established Spanish congregations, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that a considerable number of Jews lived in Natolia, the former Asia Minor, which takes in both towns; no source in hand records an end of their communities between. The row reads the two records, a century or more apart, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places both towns in the blocks drawn.¹⁴⁴⁶⁸⁶⁰⁹⁶¹⁰
1600	Valona (Vlorë)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Valona entry writes that practically all commerce in the port was in Jewish hands, that from 1541 to 1637 all the consuls of Ragusa (Dubrovnik) in Valona were Jewish, and that the community united in the mid-17th century under its hakham, or rabbi, Moses Albelda. Medium because the entry's span of years contains the step but gives no count near it. GeoNames places Valona (Vlorë) in the Vlorë block.⁶³⁸⁶¹¹
1600	Vidin	Present	Low	Both	The Vidin entry records refugees from Bavaria, who were expelled in 1470, settling in Vidin, then, without a year, refugees from Spain arriving there by way of Salonika, and gives its next date, two scholars arriving there in 1778; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Vidin a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. At 1700 the block is drawn with Bulgaria. GeoNames places Vidin in the Vidin block.⁵³⁴⁵³⁵
1600 to 1700	Bursa and Manisa (Magnesia)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bursa entry gives 735 Jewish families in the city by 1598 and 141 in 1696 to 1697, and its Ottoman Empire entry records Berurei Averot committees, which dealt with religious and moral offenders, in Bursa and Magnesia (Manisa) during the 16th and 17th centuries. GeoNames places both towns in the blocks drawn. Medium because the entries name Manisa only within a statement about several communities.⁵⁴⁹¹⁴⁴⁵⁵⁰⁶⁰⁸
1600 to 1700	Gallipoli	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Gallipoli entry records 30 Jewish families in the city in 1600 to 1601, 1.72 percent of its people, two synagogues in 1641 to 1642, and among the community's rabbis of the 17th century Ishai Almoli, who served about 1665 to 1690, and Simeon Ibn Haviv, who died in 1712. Moll's geography of 1701 counts Christians and Jews among Gallipoli's people (the scan's text garbles parts of the sentence). High because the entry dates the community within two years of 1600 and 12 years of 1700. GeoNames places Gallipoli (Gelibolu) in the Çanakkale block.⁵⁷¹¹²⁷⁵⁷²
1600 to 1700	Kavalla	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kavalla entry records Hungarian Jews brought to Kavalla in 1529, four synagogues and 500 Jews there in the 16th century, and Jews making up a third of the town's people in 1676. Medium because the entry dates its first count only by century. GeoNames places Kavala (Kavalla) just off the generalized coastline, nearest the Anatoliki Makedonia kai Thraki block.⁶¹²⁶¹³
1600 to 1700	Mosul	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kurdistan entry names rabbis of the Adoni (Barazani) and other families in Kurdistan from the beginning of the 16th century, and Samuel b. Nethanel ha-Levi Barazani as head of a yeshivah in Mosul in the 17th. Medium because the entry dates the Mosul yeshivah only by century.⁵⁶⁰¹⁶⁵
1600 to 1700	Poland-Lithuania	Present	Medium	Both	At the end of the 16th century, Ben-Sasson writes, Great Poland and Masovia had 52 Jewish communities, Lesser Poland 41, and the Ukraine, Volhynia, and Podolia about 80, and the Jewish population grew from about 100,000 in 1578 to about 300,000 around 1648; Jews also held customs stations in Lithuania. In the second half of the 17th century and in the 18th, he writes, Jewish life continued largely along the earlier lines and the Jewish population kept growing; adding to the census of 1764 for Jews who avoided it, he puts the number of Jews over a year old in Poland-Lithuania at 749,968, 201,191 of them in Lithuania, including its Belorussian districts. Medium because the sources name regions rather than bounds; the building blocks follow those regions and towns they name, among them Lublin, Lvov, Bratslav, and Brest; the rest of the kingdom within today's Poland has a row of its own at 1700.⁵⁸⁴⁶¹⁷⁵⁸⁶⁶³⁹⁶²⁰⁶⁴⁰⁶²¹⁶⁴¹⁶⁴²⁶⁴³⁶⁴⁴
1600 to 1700	Rhodes	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Rhodes entry writes that the Kahal Shalom synagogue was founded in 1577 and renovated in 1593, that Moses de Vushal of Safed, chief rabbi of Rhodes in the mid-17th century, presided over a flourishing yeshivah, a school of Talmud study, on the island, and that Moses Israel was appointed chief rabbi of Rhodes in 1714. Medium because the entry gives one or two years near each step. GeoNames places Rhodes in the Notio Aigaio block.⁵⁸⁸⁵⁸⁹
1600 to 1800	Corfu	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Corfu entry records two congregations in Corfu during the 16th century, about 400 Jewish householders in 1558 and 500 in 1663, a ghetto from 1622, the Jews' part in the island's defense when the Turks besieged it in 1716, and equal rights for the island's Jews under French rule from 1797 to 1799. Gordon's geography of 1699 counts Greeks and Jews among the people of Zante, another of the Ionian Islands. Medium because the entry gives one or two dated mentions near each step. GeoNames places Corfu in the Ionioi Nisoi block.⁵⁶⁸⁶⁸⁵⁶⁹
1600 to 1800	Djerba	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Djerba entry traces the island's Jewish community from a colony of its Jews settling in Sicily in 1239, through a persecution under the Spanish in 1519, to the 19th and 20th centuries, when the yeshivot of Djerba, its schools of Talmud study, produced many rabbis; it records no end of the community between 1519 and the 19th century. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Djerba a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the steps between; low for that reason.⁴⁸⁶⁴⁸⁷
1600 to 1850	Monastir (Bitola)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Monastir entry writes that many Spanish exiles settled in Monastir (Bitola) during the first half of the 16th century, that throughout the Ottoman period (1382 to 1913) the town was a lively commercial center, with trade mainly in Jewish hands, that Joseph b. Lev headed its yeshiva, a school of Talmud study, in the 16th century and Abraham b. Judah di Buton was a rabbi there in the 18th, and that a fire in 1863 destroyed over 1,000 Jewish homes and shops. The row reads the Ottoman period as carrying 1700. Medium because the entry dates the community near these steps mostly by century. GeoNames places Monastir (Bitola) in the Bitola block.⁵⁸⁰⁵⁸¹
1600 to 1900	Bukhara	Present	Medium	Both	The Bukhara entry writes that the town apparently became a center of Jewish life in Central Asia in the 16th century, that its main synagogue was built in the first half of the 17th, that an emissary from Safed settled there in 1793 and revived its religious life, and that the Bukharan khanate had about 10,000 Jews in 1863 to 1864 and about 16,000 at the end of the 19th century. Medium because for 1700 the entry gives no year, placing Bukhara's Jews within a Central Asian community that it describes from the 16th century to a further division in the middle of the 18th.⁵⁴³⁵⁶²
1600 to 1900	Izmir (Smyrna)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Izmir entry records that descendants of the Spanish exiles found a small Romaniot (Greek-speaking) community there in the 16th century and that the community grew from the beginning of the 17th into one of the most important of the Ottoman Empire, with a Hebrew press from 1658 and a synagogue built in 1710. It records fires in 1772 and 1841 that destroyed large sections of the town, mostly in its Jewish quarters, the first Jewish journal there in 1843, and blood libels between 1864 and 1901. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁵²⁸⁴¹⁸
1600 to 1900	Kastoria	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kastoria entry writes that refugees from Spain and Jews from Apulia and Sicily settled in Kastoria in the 16th century, and that from the 16th century onward its Jewish merchants were active in the fur trade; it records a Shabbatean following there in the mid-17th century, a synagogue built in the mid-18th century, the local rabbi at the beginning of the 19th century, the Aragon Synagogue donated in 1830, and a Jewish school established in 1873. The row reads the fur trade from the 16th century onward as carrying 1700. Medium because the entry dates the community near most steps only by century or half-century. GeoNames places Kastoria in the Dytiki Makedonia block.⁵³³⁴⁴⁰
1600 to 1900	Leghorn (Livorno)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Leghorn entry records the invitation of 1593, aimed mainly at Jews who had lived as Christians in Spain and Portugal, and gives 134 Jews in Leghorn in 1601, about 2,400 in 1693, 4,694 in 1806, 4,771 in 1841, and about 2,500 by the end of the 19th century. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶³⁶⁶⁴⁵
1600 to 1900	Metz	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Metz entry records that after the French occupation of 1552 the first three Jewish families were admitted in 1565 to 1567, that 120 persons formed a community in 1595, and that it grew to 480 families in 1718; a consistory set up in Metz in 1808 served 6,517 Jews, the synagogue was rebuilt in 1850, and the city had about 1,900 Jews in 1910. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶⁴⁶⁶⁴⁷
1600 to 1900	Sarajevo	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Sarajevo entry dates the first documents attesting Jewish presence in Sarajevo to 1565 and records a Jewish quarter with a synagogue erected in 1577, a synagogue built in 1581, rabbis of the 17th century, among them Zevi Ashkenazi, who lived there from 1686 to 1697, a community of 1,000 by 1800, its rabbi named chief rabbi (hakham bashi) for Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1840, and about 10,000 Jews by the end of the 19th century. Medium because the entry gives one or two dates near each step. GeoNames places Sarajevo in the Sarajevo block.⁶⁴⁸⁶⁴⁹
1600 to 1900	Venice	Present	High	Both	Ravid, in the Encyclopaedia Judaica, writes that Jews who fled to Venice from the mainland in 1509 were allowed to stay, making Jewish residence in the city continuous from 1513 on; the ghetto, set up in 1516, stood until 1797, the Jews gained complete emancipation when Venice joined Italy in 1866, and in the following decades the community decreased to around 2,000 in 1938. High because the entry describes one unbroken community from 1513 on.⁶¹⁴⁶²²
1700	Bohemia proper	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes of Bohemia proper, which he bounds by Moravia and Silesia on the east, Misnia and Bavaria on the west, Lusatia on the north, and Austria on the south, that its mountains yield precious stones which the Jews sent into foreign parts; his word for the Jews, garbled in the scan's text, is legible in the scan's page image. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. The sentence stands in his paragraph on Bohemia proper, and his accounts of Moravia and Silesia name no Jews, so the blocks are Bohemia proper, by this site's reading of his bounds; the Vysočina block, whose chief town, Iglau, he lists among Moravia's, is not drawn, and Prague has a row of its own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.¹²⁷
1700	Bulgaria, Servia, Romania (Thrace), and Bosnia	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that Bulgaria, now ruled by the Turks, was inhabited by Greek Christians as well as Turks and Jews; that in Servia the Greeks and Jews, who managed its trade, lived in the cities; and that in Romania, the old Thrace, between Mount Haemus and the Archipelago, whose chief cities he names with Philippopolis and Adrianople among them, the Christian religion of the Greek church was generally professed and there were also many Jews. Gordon's geography of 1699 counts Christians, Jews, and Muslims among the people of the provinces he calls Danubian, Bulgaria, Servia, and Bosnia among them, so the Bosnian blocks are drawn with these lands, and Gökbilgin, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that in the seventeenth century Evliya Çelebi counted four Jewish quarters among sixteen in Edirne's old citadel. The blocks follow Moll's bounds, by this site's reading: Servia lies south of the Danube and the Save, which he gives as its northern border, so the Serbian blocks north of those rivers are not drawn; Bulgaria runs from Servia east along the Danube to the Black Sea, south to the ridge that parts it from Romania; and Romania, the old Thrace, runs from that ridge to the Archipelago, taking in southern Bulgaria and Edirne, Kirklareli, and Tekirdag. The Blagoevgrad block, on the Strymon, lies in Moll's Macedon, which he bounds by Romania and Bulgaria on the north and where he names Jews only at Salonichi, so it is not drawn from these sentences. Belgrade, Istanbul, Gallipoli, and Kavalla have rows of their own at this step. Medium because the sources describe the countries broadly and give no count.¹²⁷⁶⁸¹⁵⁰¹⁶⁰
1700	Chios	Present	Low	Both	The Chios entry names Isaac b. Abraham Algazi as rabbi of the community during the first half of the 17th century and next counts about 200 Jews on the island in 1764; it records no end of the community between. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Chios a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. GeoNames places Chios in the Voreio Aigaio block.⁶³⁵⁵⁷⁰
1700	Diarbeck (Mesopotamia)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Diarbeck, his name for Mesopotamia, that the tomb of Ezekiel, a day and a half's journey from Bagdat, was visited every year by the Jews of Bagdat, and names the Christians and Jews of the parts near Bagdat, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named region draws that region, for every faith; the blocks are Diarbeck as the Christian layer reads the same pages, today's Iraq and the Sanliurfa, Diyarbakir, Mardin, Batman, Siirt, and Sirnak blocks, by this site's reading of Gordon's Diarbeck. Baghdad, Mosul, and Basra have rows of their own at this step. Medium because the source describes the region broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Egypt	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that there were Jews in great numbers in Egypt, as well as many Christians, whom he calls Copts, beside its Muslims. Egypt is drawn as today's Egypt, by this site's reading of his bounds; Alexandria and Cairo have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Eisenstadt	Present	Medium	Both	The Hungary entry records Jews from Vienna finding refuge on Count Esterhazy's estate in Eisenstadt and six neighboring towns in 1670, and Eisenstadt, the oldest of the "Seven Communities," receiving a privilege of autonomy in 1690. Medium because the entry's only dated mention of Eisenstadt is this passage, ten years before this step; it names Eisenstadt again among the 19th-century yeshivot, schools of Talmud study.¹⁷⁰⁶⁵⁰
1700	Hungary	Present	Medium	Both	The Hungary entry writes that by the beginning of the 18th century, when most of Hungary came under Habsburg rule, only a few remnants of the ancient Jewish settlement were to be found there, and that the census of 1735 counted 11,600 Jews, most of them born outside Hungary. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most sorts of Christians, many Jews, and not a few Muslims were to be found in Hungary, besides its Catholics and Protestants. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. Medium because Gordon describes the country broadly and gives no count; neither source says that the Habsburg reconquest moved Hungary's Jews. Eisenstadt, in today's Austria, has its own row.¹⁷⁰⁶⁸
1700	Italy	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Italians were zealous professors of the Roman church's teaching and that the Jews in Italy were allowed the public exercise of their religion. Italy is drawn within his bounds: he divides Upper Italy into Piedmont, Montferrat, Milan, Parma, Modena, Mantua, the republics of Venice and Genoa, and the bishopric of Trent, and the middle and lower parts run south to the Kingdom of Naples. The Bozen, Gorizia, Trieste, and Sondrio blocks lay outside the parts he lists, by this site's reading; Moll's geography of 1701 describes Tyrol and Goritz among the Austrian lands and writes that the Grisons possessed the Valtellina, so these blocks are not drawn from this sentence. The old Kingdom of Naples is left out: the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry records Jews expelled from Naples in the late 15th and 16th centuries, and this site reads a record that a faith's community was expelled from a named place as keeping a later statement about a larger area, here Gordon's on Italy, from drawing that place until a record names the community there again, for every faith, as this layer's rows for Arabia leave out the Hijaz; no source in hand names Jews in the kingdom again before this step. Gordon treats Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica apart, among the islands. Rome, Venice, and Leghorn have rows of their own at this step. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸⁴⁹⁷¹²⁷
1700	Larissa	Present	Medium	Both	The Greece entry records that when Venice invaded the Peloponnese in 1685 the Jews abandoned Patras and fled to Larissa. Medium because the entry mentions Jews in Thessaly near this step only once, 15 years before it.⁴⁹⁷¹⁵⁴
1700	Natolia (Asia Minor)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in Natolia, the former Asia Minor, people of all professions were tolerated, so that there were great multitudes of Christians of all sorts, and that intermixed with them was a considerable number of Jews. The blocks are Natolia as the Islam layer reads Gordon's bounds of it, west of the eastern highlands he treats apart as Turcomania and Diarbeck; Smyrna (Izmir), Bursa, Manisa, and Gallipoli have rows of their own at this step. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	Naupaktos (Lepanto)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Naupaktos entry writes that two local Jewish partners served Ottoman ministers in the 1720s and 1730s, and its Greece entry names Naupaktos among the important Jewish communities of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821. Medium because the entries give Naupaktos one dated mention near this step. GeoNames places Naupaktos (Nafpaktos) in the Dytiki Ellada block.⁶⁵¹⁴⁹⁷⁶⁵²
1700	Persia	Present	Medium	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that besides Islam, the ruling religion of Persia, there were Armenians there and some Jews, whom he describes as remaining from the Babylonian captivity, and Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that there were many Nestorian Christians in Persia, several Jesuits, and many Jews. In the scan of Gordon's book the word for the Jews is blotted, so the row rests on Moll's sentence, whose word for the Jews, garbled in the scan's text, is legible in the scan's page image. Persia is drawn as today's Iran, as the Christian layer reads Gordon's sentence; Hamadan, Isfahan, and Fars have rows of their own at this step. Medium because the sources describe the country broadly and give no count.¹²⁷⁶⁸
1700	Poland (with Red Russia, Podolia, Volhynia, and Prussia)	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that most of Poland's people professed the teaching of the Church of Rome, and that besides them there were many of the Greek church, Armenians, Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews, and others. Moll's geography of 1701 gives the kingdom as Poland proper with Lithuania, Red Russia, Podolia, Volhynia, Masovia, Prussia, Samogitia, and part of Livonia. The blocks are the kingdom by the two books' own bounds, as the Christian layer reads the same sentences: today's Poland without the Lower Silesian, Opole, Silesian, Lubusz, and West Pomeranian blocks, which lay mostly in Silesia, Brandenburg, and Pomerania; the Kaliningrad block for Ducal Prussia; and Ukraine west of the Dnieper outside the Kyiv block. Great Poland, Masovia, Lesser Poland, Lublin, Lithuania, Belarus, and the Lviv, Volyn, Khmelnytskyi, and Vinnytsia blocks are drawn with Poland-Lithuania at this step. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸¹²⁷
1700	Portugal	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the Portuguese universally embraced the teaching of the Church of Rome, with this difference from Spain, that they tolerated Jews and allowed several strangers the public exercise of their religion; his word for the Jews, garbled in the scan's text, is legible in the scan's page image. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that only the Roman Catholic religion was tolerated in Portugal, but that there were a great many Jews there who outwardly followed the religion of the country and attended its churches. Lichtenstein writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that the Jews of Portugal were baptized in 1497 and officially called New Christians, and that among them Crypto-Judaism arose: attending church and conducting themselves outwardly as Catholics, they kept Jewish observances in secret; during the centuries of the Portuguese Inquisition, from the 1530s to its abolition in 1821, most of its victims were accused of Judaizing, that is, of keeping Jewish practice. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; Portugal is drawn as today's mainland districts. Low because the community these sources describe kept its practice in secret, and this site draws such a community at low confidence, as it draws Japan's hidden Christians; neither geography gives a count or names a town.⁶⁸¹²⁷⁶²³
1700	Skopje (Üsküp)	Present	Low	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Skopje's non-Muslim men in 1569 included a small number of Jews, that after the Austrian occupation of 1689 the city lost most of its people, and that it counted 800 Jews in 1870 and 160 in 1877; the entry describes that loss but no end of the Jewish community. The row reads two mentions of Jews in Skopje a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason, and the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it. At 1800 the block is drawn with Turkey.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1700	Surinam	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Jamaica entry records Jews arriving there from Surinam in 1673 with the English evacuees forced out by the Dutch, and its Barbados entry records that in 1674, when England surrendered Surinam to the Dutch, some Jews chose to leave with the English for Barbados. Both date Jews in Surinam within 30 years of this step, and neither records an end of the community there. Surinam is drawn as today's Suriname. Medium because the entries mention Surinam's Jews only in passing, as those who left it.⁶⁵³⁶⁵⁴
1700	Syria beyond Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, and Galilee	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Syria, which he divides into Syria proper, Phoenicia, and Palestine, that many Jews, with various sorts of Christians, were dispersed over all the country and intermixed with the Turks, and that its people were mostly Turks and Greeks, with many Jews and Armenians among them; he writes that the people of Palestine were Christians, Jews, and Muslims. The blocks are greater Syria, by this site's reading of Gordon's three parts, the same reading the Islam layer gives them; Aleppo, Damascus, Jerusalem, and Galilee have rows of their own. Medium because the source describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The Balkans	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Hungary entry writes that the Ottomans' first, temporary conquest of Buda in 1526 led many of its Jewish inhabitants to join the retreating Turks, so that congregations of Hungarian Jews formed within the important communities of the Balkans; the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume dated 1810, writes that a considerable part of the empire's people were Jews and mercantile Christians from different parts of Europe, called Franks, and is drawn across European Turkey at 1800. Each is a record for a larger area that contains these blocks, the two more than a century apart, and no source in hand records an end of the community in them between. The row reads them as carrying the step between; low for that reason, as the Islam layer reads the Ottoman registers of 1520 to 1535 and the same article for Montenegro. The blocks are the Balkan peninsula as the Islam layer reads it, less the towns and lands with Jewish rows of their own at this step, among them Moll's Bulgaria, Servia, and Thrace, and Bosnia, which Gordon names among the Danubian provinces. The Constanta and Tulcea blocks are drawn here, not with Moll's Bulgaria, as the Islam layer draws them apart from it: Moll names towns of Bulgaria on the coast of the Black Sea, among them Tomi and Chiustenge, but no gazetteer in hand places his Black Sea towns on today's blocks. Valona is drawn: its entry writes that most of the city's Jews left during the Venetian siege of 1688, which dates the community 12 years before this step and does not say that all left, as this layer reads a like loss at Skopje after 1689. The Peloponnese is left out for the reasons in its gap entry. The TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Ohrid writes that Ohrid's Jews were moved to Istanbul in the second half of the fifteenth century, before the earlier of the two records.¹⁷⁰¹⁸⁷¹⁵²⁶³⁸¹²⁷
1700	The Mughal empire	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that dispersed through the Mughal's dominions was a considerable number of Jews, and that many European Christians lived on the coasts, all for the sake of trade. The blocks are the Mughal empire by the same reading of Gordon's bounds that the Islam layer gives the passage just before this sentence: Sind, both Punjabs, Haryana, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, and Bengal. Medium because the source describes the empire broadly and gives no count.⁶⁸
1700	The seaports of the peninsula of India within the Ganges	Present	Medium	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that in most of the seaport towns and places of trade of the peninsula of India within the Ganges there were Jews in considerable numbers, and many European Christians. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith; since the sentence speaks of the seaports, the blocks are the peninsula's coastal blocks, as the Islam layer reads the same paragraph's statement on the people near the sea coasts, with Puducherry's small coastal enclaves, which the Islam layer draws with them, and Tamil Nadu, which the Islam layer draws in a row of its own. Kerala has a row of its own at this step. Medium because the source describes the peninsula broadly and names none of the towns.⁶⁸
1700	Tunis	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Leghorn entry records that Jews from Leghorn organized their own community in Tunis in 1685, calling themselves Grana. Medium because the entry mentions the community only once, 15 years before this step.⁶³⁶⁶⁵⁵
1700 to 1900	Amsterdam	Present	High	Both	Portuguese Jews began to settle in Amsterdam about 1590 without openly revealing themselves as Jews, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, and a Sephardi group that arrived in 1602 apparently held services in a private home; Ashkenazim formed their own community in 1639 and numbered 5,000 in 1674 and 22,000 in 1795. The entry on the Sephardim calls Amsterdam the great center of the Marrano diaspora, which became the Western Sephardi diaspora. The row starts at 1700 because the first services came just after the 1600 step; high because the entry follows the community through emancipation and the 19th century.⁶⁵⁶⁵³⁸⁶⁵⁷
1700 to 1900	Belgrade	Present	Medium	Both	The Belgrade entry writes that shortly after 1688 a number of Jews returned to the city and rebuilt the synagogue, and Moll's geography of 1701 writes that in Servia the Greeks and Jews, who managed its trade, lived in the cities. The entry gives 800 Jews in Belgrade in 1777, records the Jewish community's share of the city's taxes in 1798, some 1,300 Jews in 1831, a Hebrew school from the 1850s, and a Ladino periodical published there from 1888 through the 1890s. Medium because the entry counts the community near 1800 and 1850 but not near 1700 or 1900. GeoNames places Belgrade in the Grad Beograd block.⁵⁶³¹²⁷⁵⁶⁴
1700 to 1900	Berlin	Present	High	Both	The Berlin entry dates the new community to 1671, when wealthy Jewish families from Austria were admitted, and records about 1,000 Jews in the city in the census of 1700, 3,292 in 1812, 11,840 in 1852, and 108,044 in 1890. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶⁰⁶⁶⁰⁷
1700 to 1900	Bridgetown, Barbados	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Barbados entry records a Jewish community and the Nidhei Israel synagogue founded in Bridgetown in 1654, the rabbi Rafael Haim Isaac Carigal there from 1774 to 1777, full civil rights for Jews in 1820, and Nidhei Israel abandoned in 1928 when the one remaining practicing Jew died. Moll's geography of 1701 counts some few Jews among the masters of the island's plantations. Low because the entry gives no date between 1820 and 1928, and the row reads the synagogue's use from 1654 to 1928 as one continuing community.⁶⁵⁴¹²⁷⁶⁵⁸
1700 to 1900	Curaçao	Present	High	Both	Arbell writes that the congregation Mikve Israel was founded in Curaçao in 1659, its first synagogue dedicated in 1674 and the present one established in 1732, and that the island became the center of Jewish life in the Caribbean, the "Mother of the Caribbean Jewish communities." Reform Judaism came there in 1863 and a Reform temple was dedicated in 1867. High because the entry dates the community through the whole span.⁶⁵⁹
1700 to 1900	Jamaica (Spanish Town and Kingston)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Jamaica entry gives 400 Jews on the island in 1700 and 2,535 in 1881, and records a congregation founded in Spanish Town in 1692, a synagogue built in Kingston in 1744, a German-English synagogue that stood from 1796 to 1860, and eight Jews among the 47 members of the House of Assembly in 1849. High because the entry dates the community near every step. Natural Earth's outline puts the gazetteer point for Kingston in the Saint Andrew building block.⁶⁵³⁶⁶⁰⁶⁶¹
1700 to 1900	London	Present	High	Both	The England entry records a small Ashkenazi community formed in London about 1690, the Bevis Marks synagogue built in London in 1701, Solomon Hirschel appointed rabbi of London's Great Synagogue in 1802, Lionel de Rothschild elected by the City of London from 1847, and England's Jewish community growing from 65,000 in 1880 to 300,000 in 1914, most of the refugees settling in London. High because the entry dates the London community near every step; the building block is the City of London, the gazetteer point used for London.⁵⁷³⁵⁷⁴
1700 to 1900	Paris	Present	Medium	Both	The Paris entry records Jews of Metz seeking permission, from the beginning of the 18th century, to enter Paris on business, their stays gradually growing longer, Jews from Bordeaux and Avignon arriving at the same time, a police inspector in special charge of the Jews from 1721 to 1772, the first publicly acknowledged synagogue in 1788, 2,908 Jews in 1809, a Jewish population of 20,000 by 1852, and refugees from Poland, Russia, and elsewhere arriving after 1881. Medium because for 1700 the entry gives only the beginning of the century and the year 1721.⁵⁸²⁵⁸³
1800	Arabia	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Asia in a volume dated 1810, which writes in the present tense and gives no year for these passages, writes that in the interior of Arabia towards the Indian Ocean, where it names Yemen, Hadramaut, and Oman, a tribe of Jews had lived for ages among the mountains, and that the Jews of Arabia held the birds the Israelites ate in the wilderness to have been locusts. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country; the blocks are Arabia as the Islam layer reads it, less Sana'a, which has a row of its own, and the Hijaz, since the Encyclopaedia Judaica's entry on Arabia writes that neither Jews nor Christians were permitted to live in the Hijaz until the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia in the 20th century. The Hijaz is read as the Makkah and Al Madinah blocks with the Tabuk block, which holds Tayma, an oasis the same entry names in its account of the Hijaz's Jews and this layer's Hejaz row for 500 to 1000 CE places in that block. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count.³⁸⁵²⁹
1800	Bohemia	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the Jews sent precious stones from the mountains of Bohemia proper into foreign parts, and the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Prague entry records an emigration of Bohemian Jews to America and Western Europe that had begun in the 1840s; the entry records no end of the Jewish communities in Bohemia outside Prague between them. The row reads two records of Jews in Bohemia a century or more apart, each a record for the region and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are Bohemia as the row for 1700 bounds it, and Prague has a row of its own.¹²⁷⁵⁶⁵
1800	Egypt	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that there were Jews in great numbers in Egypt, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Egypt (1855) writes of the Jews of Egypt in its own day, many of them bankers and money-changers, with a quarter of their own in Cairo; neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two records of Jews in Egypt a century or more apart, each a record for the country and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Alexandria and Cairo have rows of their own.⁶⁸¹²⁹
1800	Kiev	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Kiev entry records the community reestablished in 1793 after a break of about 150 years, land bought for a cemetery in 1798, and 452 Jews in the city in 1809. High because the entry dates the community on both sides of this step.¹⁷³⁶⁶²
1800	Liverpool, Birmingham, and Manchester	Present	Medium	Both	The England entry records congregations growing up in the second half of the 18th century in ports and manufacturing centers including Liverpool, Birmingham, and Manchester. Medium because the entry dates these congregations only by half-century.⁵⁷³⁶⁶³⁶⁶⁴⁶⁶⁵
1800	Persia	Present	Low	Both	Moll's geography of 1701 writes that there were some Jews in Persia, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Persia (1859) names the Jews, with Armenians and Gabars, as it calls the Zoroastrians, among those who paid a capitation tax, and among the people of the town of Urumiyah; neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two records of Jews in Persia a century or more apart, each a record for the country and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. Hamadan, Isfahan, and Fars have rows of their own.¹²⁷¹⁸⁵
1800	Surinam	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Barbados entry dates Jews in Surinam to 1674, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Guiana, in a volume of 1856, counts about 680 Jews in the colony at the close of 1850; neither records an end of the community between. The row reads two records of Jews in Surinam a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.⁶⁵⁴⁶⁶⁶
1800	The coasts of the Indian peninsula	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that there were Jews in considerable numbers in most of the seaport towns of the peninsula of India, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan (1856) writes that the Jews were numerous in India; neither records an end between. The row reads two records of Jews in India a century or more apart, each a record for the country and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are the peninsula's coastal blocks as the row for 1700 draws them, with Puducherry's enclaves; Kerala and Maharashtra have rows of their own at this step.⁶⁸¹⁹⁰
1800	The Mughal lands	Present	Low	Both	Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that a considerable number of Jews was dispersed through the Mughal's dominions, and the eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan (1856) writes that the Jews were numerous in India; neither records an end between. The row reads two records of Jews in India a century or more apart, each a record for the country and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason. The blocks are the Mughal empire as the row for 1700 reads Gordon's bounds.⁶⁸¹⁹⁰
1800	The Peloponnese, Patras, Naupaktos, and Chalcis	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Patras entry writes that in 1809 the Jews of Patras were a small fraction of the population but had an important role in local commerce, and its Naupaktos entry counts 30 Jewish families, or 150 people, in Naupaktos (Lepanto) in 1806. The Greece entry writes that during the Turkish period, which it dates 1453 to 1821, the Jews of the Peloponnesus engaged in peddling and tinsmithing, and that in 1770 the Jewish communities of Patras, Thebes, Chalcis, and Lepanto were almost destroyed; its nearest dated record of Jews in the Peloponnese itself is the 5,000 it records killed there when the Greek revolt broke out in 1821. The Stereá Elláda block is drawn for Chalcis. Medium because the entries count few of these communities near this step.⁴⁹⁷⁵³⁶⁶⁵¹⁶²⁴¹⁷¹⁶⁵²⁴⁰³
1800	The tidewater towns and Montreal	Present	Medium	Both	Under the English, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, synagogue communities were established in Montreal, Newport, New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, and Savannah, and about 2,500 Jews lived in the New World in 1775; the New York community began with 23 Jews who reached New Amsterdam from Brazil in 1654, the entry on the Sephardim writes. Medium because the sources date these communities to the colonial period and give no count for 1800.⁶⁶⁷⁵³⁸⁶⁶⁸⁶⁶⁹⁶⁷⁰⁶⁷¹⁶⁷²⁶⁷³
1800	Turkey (the Ottoman empire)	Present	Medium	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume dated 1810, which names no year later than 1807, writes that the empire's people are usually estimated at 18,000,000, 10,000,000 in Asiatic Turkey and 8,000,000 in Turkey in Europe, and writes that a considerable part of this population consisted of Jews and mercantile Christians, from different parts of Europe, called Franks; it adds that at Smyrna, at Constantinople, and throughout the empire, trade was managed by Jewish or Armenian brokers. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. The blocks are the empire as the Islam layer reads the same article: Asiatic Turkey's seven provinces, from Asia Minor to Iraq and Syria, with the Turkish part of Georgia and Cyprus, and Turkey in Europe south of the Danube with the Dobrudja and the Aegean islands, less Mount Athos, whose Orthodox monasteries, the TDV encyclopedia's Greece entry writes, received privileges under Ottoman rule, and where no source in hand places Jews; with them are Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia, which the article lists among the European provinces, drawn as the Wallachian and Moldavian blocks of today's Romania and today's Moldova west of the Dniester. The Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save, outside Servia as Moll's geography of 1701 bounds it and in none of the provinces the article lists, are left out. Towns and lands with Jewish rows of their own at this step are left out of the row. Medium because the article describes the empire as a whole and gives no count of its Jews.¹⁸⁷¹²⁷¹⁴⁵
1800 to 1850	Basra	Present	High	Both	The Basra entry records a quarrel in 1793 between the representative of the East India Company and the Jewish merchants, who played a vital role in the town's commerce, 300 Jewish households in 1824, about 300 Jewish families in 1848, and 40 in 1860. High because the entry counts the community within 24 years of 1800 and 2 years of 1850. GeoNames places Basra in the Al-Basrah block.⁵⁴⁶²³⁷
1800 to 1850	Bursa	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bursa entry names a rabbi, also a physician, living in the city at the end of the 18th century and a rabbi who lived there in the 19th century and whose book was published in 1849; its Ottoman Empire entry writes that between 1750 and 1900 scholars wrote books in Bursa, among other communities, and names Bursa among the eight districts whose provincial chief rabbis joined in electing the empire's chief rabbi under the regulations confirmed in 1865. Medium because the city is drawn as the block that holds it.⁵⁴⁹¹⁴⁴⁵⁵⁰
1800 to 1850	Edirne (Adrianople)	Present	Medium	Both	The Ottoman Empire entry writes that between 1750 and 1900 intellectual life existed mainly in the great communities of the empire, and that in this period scholars wrote books in Edirne, among other communities; it names Edirne among the eight districts whose provincial chief rabbis joined in electing the empire's chief rabbi under the regulations confirmed in 1865. The row reads the period from 1750 to 1900 as carrying these steps. Medium because the city is drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁴⁴¹⁶⁰
1800 to 1850	Kaifeng	Present	Low	Both	After the synagogue was rebuilt in 1653, Loewenthal writes, the community fell into rapid decay, most likely because of its isolation from other centers of Jewish life, and by the middle of the 19th century the Jews of Kaifeng kept only a rudimentary knowledge of Judaism and the ruins of the synagogue. Low because the source gives no dated record between 1679 and the middle of the 19th century; the row ends at 1850 because he describes only descendants after that.⁵⁹⁵⁵⁹⁶
1800 to 1850	Larissa (Yenişehir), in Thessaly	Present	Medium	Both	Kiel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1791 two geographers described Yenişehir (Larissa) as a large city of Turks, Greeks, Jews, and Armenians, that in 1799 Beaujour found half its 20,000 people Turks and half Greeks and Jews, and that the district's yearbook of 1871 counts Jews among its non-Muslim men and names synagogues among the buildings of its non-Muslim communities. Medium because the city and its district are drawn as the Thessaly block.¹⁵³¹⁵⁴
1800 to 1900	Algiers	Present	High	Both	The Algeria entry names the Busnach and Bacri families among the Jews from Leghorn who settled in Algiers in the 18th century, and writes that they had been delivering grain to France since the end of that century; its table of Jewish population by town gives 6,065 Jews in Algiers in 1838 and 10,822 in 1901, and it records a consistory created there in 1845 and a Hebrew printing house in 1853. High because the entry dates the community at or near each step.⁵⁶⁶⁶²⁵
1800 to 1900	Bessarabia (Kishinev and the north)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bessarabia entry estimates the region's Jews at 20,000 in 1812, names rabbis of Kishinev and of Soroki, and writes that the Jewish population, mainly in Kishinev and its district and in the northern part of the region, grew from 43,062 in 1836 to 94,045 in 1867 and 228,620 in 1897, of whom 50,237 lived in Kishinev. Medium because, apart from Kishinev's figure, the figures are for the whole region, and for Soroki the entry names only a rabbi of the early 19th century; the building blocks follow Kishinev and Soroki.⁶⁷⁴⁶⁷⁵⁶⁷⁶
1800 to 1900	Chios	Present	Medium	Both	The Chios entry records that in 1822 the Ottomans gave the island's Jews ownership of the cemetery, that the ghetto was destroyed by an earthquake in 1881, when the island's Jews traded in iron implements, copper, cloth, oil, and figs, and that between 250 and 350 Jews lived there in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Medium because the entry's dates fall 22 years after 1800 and 28 years before 1850. GeoNames places Chios in the Voreio Aigaio block.⁶³⁵⁵⁷⁰
1800 to 1900	Cracow (Kazimierz)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Cracow entry records the income of the Kazimierz Jewish community in 1801, 13,000 Jewish residents of Cracow in 1848, when the rabbi Dov Berush Meisels was returned to the Austrian parliament as deputy for Cracow, and 25,670 Jews in 1900, 28 percent of the city. High because the entry dates the community within two years of each step.⁶⁷⁷⁵⁸⁶⁶¹⁸
1800 to 1900	Eastern Europe	Present	Medium	Both	In eastern Europe, Swartz writes, the Hasidic movement and the Talmudism of the Vilna Gaon changed Jewish life; after the partitions of Poland, Slutsky writes, Russia let Jews remain in their former regions of residence, among them the provinces of Vilna, Grodno, Minsk, Volhynia, and Podolia. Mendelsohn writes that Jews made up 8.7 percent of the Kingdom of Poland's population in 1816 and 14 of every 100 of its citizens in 1897, records the growth of Warsaw's Jewish community, and calls Vilna and Lvov great Jewish cities. Medium because the sources name provinces and cities in a broad area; the building blocks follow those names.⁴⁷⁸⁶⁷⁸⁵⁸⁴⁶⁷⁹⁶²⁰⁶⁸⁰⁶⁸¹⁶⁸²⁶⁴⁰⁶²¹⁶⁴¹
1800 to 1900	Galicia	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Galicia entry gives 212,002 Jews in the province in 1785 and 141 organized communities in 1789, names Rogatin among six towns it describes as almost entirely Jewish in the 1770s and Ternopol among the large cities where the Haskalah was influential, at its high point from 1815 to 1850, and records three Galician Jews in the parliament of 1848, the first Galician society for settlement in Palestine founded in Przemysl in 1875, and Jews as 58 percent of the civil servants and judges in 1897. Medium because the entry's statements near these steps are for the whole province; the building blocks follow Przemysl, Ternopol, and Rogatin.⁶⁸³⁶⁸⁴⁶⁸⁵⁶⁸⁶
1800 to 1900	Hungary	Present	Medium	Both	The Hungary entry gives 81,000 Jews in Hungary in 1787, 340,000 by 1850, 542,000 in the census of 1869, and 910,000 in 1910, and records Jews allowed to settle in all localities in 1859 to 1860 and the Jewish religion officially recognized in 1895. Medium because the figures are for Hungary as it then was, whose borders were wider than today's, and the entry places most Jews in villages in the 18th century without naming them.¹⁷⁰
1800 to 1900	Lisbon	Present	Medium	Both	Nall writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Portugal entry that Jewish settlement in Portugal was renewed around 1800, the first settlers holding British nationality, and that a corner of the British cemetery in Lisbon holds Hebrew tombstones from 1804. A decree of 1868 let the Jews of Lisbon build a cemetery for their dead, the community was officially recognized in 1892, and a synagogue opened in Lisbon in 1902. Medium because the entry dates the community near 1800 and 1850 only by its burials and cemeteries. GeoNames places Lisbon in the Lisboa block.⁶²³⁶⁸⁷
1800 to 1900	Odessa	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Odessa entry records six Jews in the fortress of Khadzhi-Bei when the Russians took it in 1789, a kahal and the first synagogue in 1798, and 246 Jews in 1795, 6,950 in 1831, 51,378 in 1873, and 138,935 in 1897; from the 1880s the community was the second largest in Russia. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶⁸⁸⁶⁸⁹
1800 to 1900	Persia (Hamadan and Isfahan)	Present	Medium	Both	Fischel writes that Jews of Hamadan and Isfahan were among the Persian-speaking Jews who set out for the Holy Land in the 19th century, that Alliance Israélite Universelle schools opened in Hamadan in 1900 and in Isfahan in 1901, and that news of a persecution of the Jews of Hamadan reached London in 1865. He heads a section of the entry with the Kajar dynasty's years, 1794 to 1925, and writes that European missionaries and travelers describe the fate of Persia's Jews under it; the row reads that span as carrying 1800. Medium because for 1800, and for Isfahan at 1850, the entry speaks only of the dynasty or the century as a whole.⁵¹⁷⁵¹⁸⁵⁴²
1800 to 1900	Plovdiv (Filibe)	Present	Medium	Both	Kiel writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that Papa Konstantin, writing in 1819, counted the Jews, who spoke old Spanish, among Plovdiv's five groups of people; that Viquesnel found 500 Jewish households among 8,000 in 1868; that the provincial yearbook of 1874 lists a synagogue in the town; and that the Bulgarian census of 1887 counted 2,202 Jews there. Medium because the city is drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁴⁸¹⁴⁹
1800 to 1900	Poznan	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Poznan entry records the Jewish quarter severely damaged by fire in 1803, Jewish delegates elected to the city's municipal institutions in 1853, about 6,000 Jews in the 1860s, and rabbinical conventions held in the city's synagogue in 1876, 1877, 1897, and 1914. High because the entry dates the community near every step.⁶⁹⁰⁶¹⁷
1800 to 1900	Rhodes	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Rhodes entry names the chief rabbis who led the community in the 18th century, among them Moses Israel II, appointed in 1773, and records a bank founded by Behor Alhadeff in 1819, the Menashe yeshivah, a school of Talmud study, founded in 1850, the talmud torah founded in 1899, and between 2,000 and 4,000 Jews during the 19th century; the Ottoman Empire entry writes that between 1750 and 1900 scholars wrote books in Rhodes, among other communities of Greece, Turkey, and the Balkans. High because the entries date the community within 30 years of every step.⁵⁸⁸¹⁴⁴⁵⁸⁹
1800 to 1900	Ruse (Rustchuk)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Ruse entry writes that Jews who escaped from Belgrade when the Austrians besieged it in 1788 founded the community of Ruse, and records its first synagogue in 1797, its first rabbi from 1806 to 1814, synagogues founded in 1826, 1852, and 1858, and 4,028 Jews in 1905. Medium because the entry counts the community only once near these steps. GeoNames places Ruse in the Ruse block.⁶⁹¹⁶⁹²
1800 to 1900	The Konkan coast and Bombay (Bene Israel)	Present	Medium	Both	The Bene Israel, Katz writes, trace themselves to seven couples from Israel who survived a shipwreck off Navgaon in an unknown, distant past, and the Konkan coast is their spiritual home; from the middle of the 18th century, after a Kochi merchant, David Rahabi, concluded that they were Jews and taught some of them Hebrew, they became members of the wider Jewish community. They built their first synagogue in Mumbai in 1796, and before long more Bene Israel lived in Mumbai than in the Konkan. Medium because the source gives few dates for the community before 1900.²⁶⁹⁵²²
1850	Arabia	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Arabia, in a volume of 1853, writes that in its own day great numbers of settled Jews, natives of Arabia, were to be found in the seaports and in other places where they were allowed to live, and that in the interior Jewish tribes led a wandering life like the Bedouin. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country; the blocks are Arabia as the row for 1800 draws it, less Sana'a, which has a row of its own, and Hadhramaut, whose people, the same article writes, call their land undefiled by the foot of either Jew or Christian. The Hijaz (the Makkah and Al Madinah blocks, with the Tabuk block, which holds Tayma) is left out, as at 1800, since the Encyclopaedia Judaica's entry on Arabia writes that neither Jews nor Christians were permitted to live in the Hijaz until the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia in the 20th century. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count.⁴³⁰⁵²⁹
1850	Asiatic Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, in a volume of 1860, writes that Jews lived in more or less number in the towns of Asiatic Turkey, and counts 150,000 of them among the 16,100,000 people of Asia Minor, Syria, and Arabia, in a table that it writes corresponds in essentials with the last census, of 1852 (the figures are read from the scan's page image, since the scanned text scrambles the table). A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country, for every faith. The blocks are Asiatic Turkey as the Islam layer reads the counts of 1844 and 1852 at this step, with Kars, Ardahan, and the Batum territory (the Artvin and Ajaria blocks), which the 1911 edition writes became Russian only in 1878; Arabia and Cyprus have rows of their own, and towns with Jewish rows of their own at this step are left out of the row. Medium because the article describes the country broadly; its count of the Jews is too small a share to place them by itself.²⁰⁰¹⁴¹¹⁸⁶
1850	Chalkis (Chalcis)	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Patras entry writes that the 17 Jewish families left in Patras at the end of the Ottoman period fled to Larissa, Chalkis, and Corfu at the onset of the fighting of the Greek Revolution, which it dates 1821 to 1829. Low because that is the only mention of Jews in Chalkis (Chalcis) within 30 years of the step. GeoNames places Chalcis in the Stereá Elláda block.⁵³⁶⁴⁰³
1850	Cyprus	Present	Low	Both	The fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1810) counts Cyprus among the islands belonging to Turkey and writes that a considerable part of the empire's people were Jews and mercantile Christians, and the 1911 edition, whose estimates are for about 1910, writes that the Jews were spread through Turkey in Europe and Asia, in a table of the empire's peoples whose notes also name Cyprus. The 1860 edition's statement on the Jews of Asiatic Turkey, drawn at this step, does not name the island. The row reads two records of Jews in Turkey a century apart, each a record for the empire and so for the places in it, with no end recorded between, as carrying the step between; low for that reason.¹⁸⁷¹⁸⁶
1850	Dutch Guiana (Surinam)	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Guiana, in a volume of 1856, writes that at the close of 1850 the colony of Dutch Guiana, or Surinam, had 61,080 people, and that among its religious bodies the Moravians numbered 17,933 and the Jews about 680, about 1 percent (computed). Its count is too small a share to place the Jews by itself, but its statement that Jews lived in the colony draws it, as a source's own statement that a faith's people lived in a place does for every faith. The colony is drawn as today's Suriname, which the article bounds by the Corentyn and the Maroni. Medium because the article describes the colony broadly and names no town for its Jews.⁶⁶⁶
1850	Egypt	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Egypt, in a volume of 1855, writes in the present tense of the Jews of Egypt, many of them bankers and money-changers, and of the quarter of the Jews in Cairo, and gives Lane's estimate of 1834 of about 5,000 Jews in a population of under 2,000,000. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country; Egypt is drawn as today's Egypt, as at 1700, and Alexandria and Cairo have rows of their own. Medium because the article describes the country broadly; Lane's figure is too small a share to place the Jews by itself.¹²⁹
1850	European Turkey	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Turkey in a volume of 1860, whose table of the people by religion it ties to the census of 1852, gives European Turkey 16,200,000 people, 5,900,000 of them Muslims, 420,000 Catholics in Bosnia, Albania, and Philipopoli, and 9,080,000 of the Greek church, besides the Jews, Franks, and Gypsies; the table counts 70,000 Jews there (the figures are read from the scan's page image, since the scanned text scrambles the table). A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country. The blocks are European Turkey as Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, lists the European part of the Ottoman count of 1844: Thrace, Rumelia, Bulgaria, Albania, Bosnia, Wallachia, Moldavia, Serbia, and the Aegean islands, with the Ottoman provinces within today's Greece that Hacısalihoğlu names in the same encyclopedia. Montenegro, which Koç's list does not name, is drawn too, since the 1860 table counts the Jews within the total for European Turkey, which adds the population of Wallachia and Moldavia, Servia, and Montenegro in one sum. Serbia is drawn south of the Danube and the Save, its northern border in Moll's geography of 1701, and towns with Jewish rows of their own at this step are left out of the row. Medium because the article describes European Turkey as a whole; its count of the Jews is too small a share to place them by itself.²⁰⁰¹⁴¹¹⁴⁵¹²⁷
1850	Hindustan	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan, in a volume of 1856, writes that the Jews were numerous in India and that many were to be found in the Bombay army. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country; the blocks are Hindustan as the Hindu and Islam layers read the same article, from the Indus and Peshawar to Assam and Bengal and south to Cape Comorin; Kerala, and the Konkan with Bombay, have Jewish rows of their own. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count of its Jews.¹⁹⁰
1850	Liverpool and Birmingham	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Liverpool entry records a secession in 1838 that led to a second congregation, and a Jewish community of around 3,000 by about 1860, second in size to London's; its Birmingham entry names M.J. Raphall as the community's rabbi from 1841 to 1849 and records the Singers Hill Synagogue consecrated in 1856, when about 700 Jews lived in the city. Medium because each entry counts its community only once near the step. GeoNames places both cities in the blocks drawn.⁶⁹³⁶⁹⁴⁶⁶³⁶⁶⁴
1850	Persia	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Persia, in a volume of 1859, which gives no year for these passages, names the Jews, with Armenians and Gabars, as it calls the Zoroastrians, among those who paid a capitation tax, and writes that the town of Urumiyah, west of the lake of that name, had 25,000 people, 22,000 of them Muslims and the rest Jews and Nestorians. A period source's statement that a faith's people lived in a named country draws that country; Persia is drawn as today's Iran, as at 1700, and Hamadan, Isfahan, Fars, and Teheran have rows of their own. Medium because the article describes the country broadly and gives no count of its Jews.¹⁸⁵
1850	Shahrisabz, Merv, and Samarkand	Present	Medium	Both	The Bukhara entry names relatively large Jewish populations in Shahrisabz and Merv, which in the 1840s took in many Jews who had escaped from Meshed, and records Jewish quarters established in Samarkand and other towns during the first half of the 19th century. Medium because the entry dates these communities by decade and half-century, not by year.⁵⁴³⁶⁹⁵¹¹⁷¹³⁴
1850	The Crimea (the Karaites)	Present	Medium	Both	The eighth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, in its article on Europe in the volume of 1855, writes that a small body of Jews who reject the Talmud and its traditions and acknowledge only the law itself, known as Karaites, have their headquarters in the Crimea. Medium because the source names the Crimea but no town there.¹⁹⁴
1850 to 1900	Bohemia	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Prague entry records an emigration of Bohemian Jews to America and Western Europe that had begun in the 1840s and grew after 1848, and writes that the number of Jews in Bohemia reached its maximum in 1880 and then decreased. Its table gives the Jews of Prague as 21.7 percent of Bohemia's Jews in 1880 and 29.4 percent in 1900, so that more than 70 percent of them lived outside the city (computed). The entry's statements place Jews in Bohemia, and so in the places inside it; the blocks are Bohemia as the row for 1700 bounds it, and Prague has a row of its own. Medium because the entry names no town outside Prague.⁵⁶⁵
1850 to 1900	Corfu	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Corfu entry names Judah Bibas as rabbi of Corfu from 1831 and records a Jewish community of 4,000 in 1855 and of 6,000, 9.23 percent of the local population, in 1863, and a Jewish population of 5,000 in 1891. High because the entry counts the community within 13 years of 1850 and 9 years of 1900. GeoNames places Corfu in the Ionioi Nisoi block.⁵⁶⁸⁵⁶⁹
1850 to 1900	Djerba	Present	Medium	Both	The Djerba entry writes that in the 19th and 20th centuries the island's yeshivot, its schools of Talmud study, produced many rabbis and writers and provided rabbis for the communities of North Africa, and that a Hebrew press opened there in 1903. Medium because the entry dates the community only by century until 1903; 1600 to 1800 are drawn in a row of their own, at low confidence.⁴⁸⁶⁴⁸⁷
1850 to 1900	Gallipoli	Present	Medium	Both	The Gallipoli entry names an av bet din, the head of the community's rabbinical court, in the middle of the 19th century and the rabbi Jacob Ibn Haviv, who died in 1863, writes that the community prospered during the 19th century, and records Raphael Hayyim Binyamin Peretz as its rabbi after 1878 and 2,500 Jews in the city in 1912. Medium because the entry dates the community near 1850 only by its rabbis. GeoNames places Gallipoli (Gelibolu) in the Çanakkale block.⁵⁷¹⁵⁷²
1850 to 1900	Kavalla	Present	Medium	Both	The Kavalla entry writes that in the mid-19th century, as the port developed, several affluent Jewish families from Salonika moved to Kavalla, and records 24 Jewish families there in 1880, a synagogue built in 1885, and 230 families, 1,000 to 1,300 people, by 1900. Medium because the entry dates the community near 1850 only by half-century. GeoNames places Kavala (Kavalla) just off the generalized coastline, nearest the Anatoliki Makedonia kai Thraki block.⁶¹²⁶¹³
1850 to 1900	Manchester	Present	Medium	Both	The England entry records important communities formed or expanded in the 19th century in provincial centers such as Manchester, where a Sephardi community was also organized in the second half of the century, and refugees after 1881 reinforcing the community of Manchester. Medium because the entry dates Manchester's community by century and half-century, and its Sephardi synagogue to 1874, 24 years after this step.⁵⁷³⁶⁶⁵
1850 to 1900	Mosul	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Iraq entry gives about 450 Jewish families in Mosul in 1848 and writes that the figure of 3,000 Jews there remained stable until about the beginning of the 20th century; the Kurdistan entry records Alliance Israélite Universelle schools opened in Mosul in 1900 and 1906. High because the entries date the community within two years of both steps.⁴³²⁵⁶⁰¹⁶⁵
1850 to 1900	Oran and Constantine	Present	High	Both	The Algeria entry records consistories created in Oran and Constantine in 1845 and Hebrew printing houses in Oran in 1856 and 1880; its table of Jewish population by town gives Oran 5,637 Jews in 1838 and 10,651 in 1901, and Constantine 4,093 in 1861 and 7,196 in 1901. High because the entry dates both communities within five years of each step.⁵⁶⁶⁶⁹⁶⁶⁹⁷
1850 to 1900	Patras	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Patras entry writes that when the Greek government was formed in 1832 Patras became a center for Jews from Zakynthos, Arta, Preveza, and mainly Corfu, and that in 1902 the community consisted of some 15 to 20 poor families of peddlers. Medium because the entry gives one date near each step. GeoNames places Patras in the Dytiki Ellada block.⁵³⁶¹⁷¹
1850 to 1900	Skopje (Üsküp)	Present	Medium	Both	İnbaşı writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that in 1870 Skopje counted 800 Jews among 20,800 people, and in 1877, 160 among 31,208; that the castle stood between the Jewish quarter and the market square; and that the city had a synagogue in 1898. Medium because the city is drawn as Čair, the Natural Earth block that holds GeoNames' point for it.⁴⁰⁸⁴⁰⁹
1850 to 1900	Teheran	Present	High	Both	Fischel writes that in the middle of the 19th century four brothers of one Jewish family were the busiest and most popular physicians in Teheran, and that the first school of the Alliance Israélite Universelle opened there in 1898. High because the entry dates Jews in the city near both steps.⁵¹⁷⁶⁹⁸
1850 to 1900	The United States	Present	Medium	Both	The Jewish population of the United States grew from about 15,000 in 1840 to 150,000 in 1860 and perhaps 280,000 in 1880, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, and before the Civil War settlement spread to the Erie Canal and Great Lakes cities, Cincinnati, St. Louis, New Orleans, and San Francisco, with New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore the main communities, while old seacoast communities such as Charleston failed to grow and declined in importance. Swartz writes that the 19th and 20th centuries brought great Jewish migration from Europe to America. Medium because the building blocks are whole states around the cities named.⁶⁶⁷⁴⁷⁸⁶⁷⁰⁶⁹⁹⁷⁰⁰⁷⁰¹⁷⁰²⁷⁰³⁷⁰⁴⁷⁰⁵⁷⁰⁶⁷⁰⁷⁷⁰⁸⁶⁷¹
1900	Adrianople (Edirne)	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Adrianople writes that in 1905 half of the city's 80,000 people were Turks and half Jews, Greeks, Bulgars, Armenians, and others, and that each community had its own charitable institutions, the Jews' being specially well endowed. Medium because the city is drawn as the block that holds it.²⁴³¹⁶⁰
1900	Basra	Present	Medium	Both	The Iraq entry records that after the Suez Canal opened in 1869 trade shifted to the port of Basra and that the small Jewish community there grew larger, and its table gives 6,928 Jews in Basra province in 1920. Medium because the entry's nearest dates fall 31 years before this step, with the community's growth undated, and 20 years after it.⁴³²²³⁷
1900	Belmonte	Present	Low	Both	Lichtenstein writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Portugal entry that historians at the beginning of the 20th century supposed the last of Portugal's crypto-Jews, descendants of the converts who kept Jewish practice in secret, had disappeared, but that in 1917, 17 years after this step, a mining engineer, Samuel Schwarz, found a community of them in the remote northern region near Belmonte; they had apparently kept their identity in the mountains, marrying among themselves, keeping memories of Jewish observances, and being called Jews by their neighbors. GeoNames places Belmonte in the Castelo Branco block. Low because the community kept its practice in secret, and this site draws such a community at low confidence, as it draws Portugal's converts at 1700 and Japan's hidden Christians.⁶²³⁷⁰⁹
1900	Beta Israel of Tigre	Present	Medium	Both	The Beta Israel entry writes that the modern Tigrean communities appear to have originated in 1862, when Beta Israel who had set out on a failed exodus settled in Tigre, especially in the Shire region, and that in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Jews of Gondar and Tigre had only irregular contact. Medium because the entry dates the communities' beginning 38 years before this step and otherwise describes them only for the late 19th and early 20th centuries.⁶²⁸⁷¹⁰⁷¹¹
1900	Bursa and Manisa	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Bursa entry gives 2,179 Jews in the city in 1883 and 600 families in 1886, and its Ottoman Empire entry writes that between 1750 and 1900 scholars wrote books in Bursa, among other communities; for Manisa (Magnesia) the Ottoman Empire entry's one mention near this step is an accusation of ritual murder (a blood libel) against its Jews in 1893. GeoNames places both towns in the blocks drawn. Medium because the entries mention Manisa's Jews near this step only once.⁵⁴⁹¹⁴⁴⁵⁵⁰⁶⁰⁸
1900	Crete	Present	Low	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that there were about 10,000 Jews in Greece at the beginning of the 20th century, and that after the Balkan War, with the annexation in 1912 of further territories, among them Salonika, Chios, Crete, and Epirus, their numbers grew to 100,000; it lists Crete among the annexed lands without naming its Jews. The entry names the Jews of Crete directly in its account of the Turkish and late Venetian periods, which it dates 1453 to 1821, when they played an important part in the island's transit trade, and again among the Jews of Ioannina, Crete, Corfu, and Rhodes whose deportations it ties to the Second World War. It records no end of the community on the island between them; its record of Jews leaving the Greek islands in 1891 names Corfu and Zante but not Crete, so it is not read as an end there. The row reads two mentions of Jews on Crete a century or more apart, with no end recorded between, as carrying this step; low for that reason. GeoNames places Crete in the Kriti block.⁴⁹⁷⁴⁹⁸
1900	Greece (Attica, the Peloponnese, and Central Greece)	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that at the beginning of the 20th century there were about 10,000 Jews in Greece, the kingdom before the annexations that followed the Balkan War of 1912 to 1913. Its figure is a count for the whole kingdom; its statement that Jews lived in Greece draws the kingdom, as a source's own statement that a faith's people lived in a place does for every faith. The blocks are the kingdom's lands that no other Jewish row draws at this step: Attica, the Peloponnese, and Central Greece with Euboea, by this site's reading of the kingdom's bounds. Medium because the entry describes the kingdom broadly and names no town in these blocks.⁴⁹⁷
1900	Kairouan	Present	Medium	Both	Corcos writes in the Encyclopaedia Judaica that shortly after French civil servants were sent to Kairouan from 1881, Jewish shopkeepers settled there with their families and founded two synagogues, and 348 Jews lived there in 1936. Medium because the entry dates the settlement only as shortly after 1881.⁵⁴⁷⁵⁴⁸
1900	Liverpool and Birmingham	Present	Medium	Both	The England entry records refugees after 1881 reinforcing the community of Birmingham, and immigrants forming crowded quarters in Liverpool. Medium because the entry dates these communities only as after 1881.⁵⁷³⁶⁶³⁶⁶⁴
1900	Monastir (Bitola)	Present	High	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Monastir entry gives 4,000 Jews in Monastir (Bitola) in 1884 and 7,000 in 1910. High because the entry counts the community 16 years before and 10 years after this step. GeoNames places Monastir (Bitola) in the Bitola block.⁵⁸⁰⁵⁸¹
1900	Samarkand	Present	Medium	Both	The Bukhara entry writes that after the Russian conquest of 1868 the Jewish population of Samarkand increased greatly, and that Samarkand was later added to the list of places where Bukharan Jews who could not prove they were natives of the region were permitted to live. Medium because the entry gives no year for Samarkand's community near this step.⁵⁴³¹³⁴
1900	Sofia	Present	Medium	Both	Şahin writes in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam that the principality's first census, in 1881, 19 years before this step, counted 4,146 Jews among Sofia's 20,501 people. Medium because the figure is for the city, drawn as the block that holds it.¹⁶⁷¹⁶⁸
1900	The Dobrudja	Present	Low	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the Dobrudja, today's Constanta and Tulcea blocks, as bounded on the north and west by the Danube, and writes that when it was wrested from Turkey and given to Rumania in 1878 it was peopled by Turks, Bulgarians, Tatars, Jews, and others, whose numbers decreased steadily after 1880. Low because the source names the Jews in a list of peoples and gives no figures. At 1850, when the Dobrudja was Ottoman, it is drawn with Turkey.¹⁴⁷
1900	The Pale of Settlement and Russian Poland	Present	Medium	Both	The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Pale of Settlement entry records that in the census of 1897 the Jews were a minority in every province of the Pale, among them Chernigov, Poltava, and Kherson, that they were most of the townspeople of Mogilev province, and that Lodz, Bialystok, Berdichev, Yekaterinoslav, Vitebsk, and Kiev were among the largest Jewish communities; the Kiev entry gives 31,801 Jews there in 1897. Medium because for Chernigov, Poltava, and Kherson the source gives only the provincial picture, and those building blocks follow each province's capital.⁶⁷⁸¹⁷³⁶⁶²⁷¹²⁷¹³⁷¹⁴⁷¹⁵⁷¹⁶⁷¹⁷⁷¹⁸⁷¹⁹⁷²⁰
1900	Thessaly	Present	Medium	Both	Kiel, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, gives a Greek report of 1880 counting 3,000 Jews in Larissa, and writes that the city's Jewish community stayed there through the Second World War; the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Greece entry writes that about 10,000 Jews lived in Greece at the beginning of the 20th century. Medium because the Greece entry names no Thessalian town, and the report falls 20 years before the step.⁴⁹⁷¹⁵³⁵⁰⁹¹⁵⁴
1900	Tlemcen, Sétif, Bône, and Blida	Present	High	Both	The Algeria entry's table of Jewish population by town gives, for 1901, 4,910 Jews in Tlemcen, 1,601 in Sétif, 1,387 in Bône, and 1,077 in Blida, after 3,745, 936, 625, and 395 in 1881. High because the table dates these communities one year after this step.⁵⁶⁶⁷²¹⁷²²⁷²³⁷²⁴
1900	Turkey in Europe and Asia	Present	Medium	Both	The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, whose estimates are for about 1910, lists the Jews as spread through Turkey in Europe and Asia, and largely congregated in the sanjak of Jerusalem and the vilayets of Bagdad, Mosul, Syria, and Beirut, a statement that a faith's people lived in a named country, which draws that country. The blocks are Turkey as the Islam layer reads the same article for about 1910: Asian Turkey without Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin, the Arab vilayets of Syria and Iraq, Turkey in Europe from Thrace to Albania and Kosovo, less Mount Athos, and Cyprus, which a note to the article's table of peoples names; towns with Jewish rows of their own at this step are left out of the row. Of the vilayet of Yemen only the block that holds Sana'a is drawn, as in the Islam layer, since no source in hand gives the vilayet's extent, and Sana'a has a Jewish row of its own. The Hijaz vilayet (the Makkah and Al Madinah blocks) is left out, since the Encyclopaedia Judaica's entry on Arabia writes that neither Jews nor Christians were permitted to live in the Hijaz until the discovery of oil in Saudi Arabia in the 20th century. Medium because the article describes the empire as a whole and gives no count by place.¹⁸⁶¹⁵⁹¹⁴²⁵²⁹
1900	Vidin	Present	Medium	Both	The Vidin entry gives between 1,300 and 1,500 Jews in Vidin at the end of the 19th century and 2,000 in 1919. Medium because the entry dates the first count only to the end of the century. GeoNames places Vidin in the Vidin block.⁵³⁴⁵³⁵
1900	Yezd	Present	Medium	Both	Fischel names Yezd among the towns from which a great number of Persian-speaking Jews set out for the Holy Land in the 19th century, almost parallel with the Hibbat Zion movement in Russia. Medium because the entry dates this only to the 19th century and gives no other dated mention of Jews in Yezd.⁵¹⁷⁷²⁵

2000 BCE: No Jewish region is drawn at this step. In the rabbinic count, as the Chabad.org timeline gives it, Abraham was born in 1948 (1813 BCE), so the step comes before even the Torah's accounts of the patriarchs, which the map does not draw for any faith; among historians, Dever finds the first mention of a people called Israel, in Canaan, about 1206 BCE.⁴⁷¹⁴⁷⁶
1500 BCE: No Jewish region is drawn at this step. In the rabbinic count, as the Chabad.org timeline gives it, Jacob's family went down to Egypt in 2238 (1523 BCE) and the Torah was given at Sinai in 2448 (1313 BCE), so the step falls in the Torah's account of the patriarchs and of Israel in Egypt before Sinai, which the map does not draw; among historians, Dever finds the first mention of a people called Israel, in Canaan, about 1206 BCE, while Hoffmeier argues that the Hebrews could have been one group within a large Semitic population in the Nile Delta from 1650 to 1525 BCE.⁴⁷¹⁴⁷⁶⁷²⁶

Latter-day Saints

Steps	Region	Level	Confidence	Account	Note
1850	Copenhagen and Aalborg	Present	High	Both	Erastus Snow organized the Scandinavian Mission in Copenhagen in June 1850, and the church's chronology dates the first baptisms in Denmark to August 12, 1850, the Copenhagen Branch to September 15, and a branch in Aalborg to November 25. John Langeland writes that the Copenhagen branch began with about fifty members.⁷²⁷⁷²⁸⁷²⁹⁷³⁰
1850	Genoa (Carson Valley)	Present	Low	Both	Ted Warner writes that Latter-day Saints founded what became Nevada's first permanent white settlement when, in 1849, would-be gold miners established a trading post at present-day Genoa, in the Carson Valley, to supply travelers bound for the California goldfields, and that in 1855 Brigham Young sent Orson Hyde to Carson Valley to organize a county government, with about 250 Latter-day Saints arriving the following year. Low because one trading post stands for the whole state, and the source dates the next church-directed settlement there to 1855 and 1856.⁷³¹
1850	Hawaii	Present	Medium	Both	The Latter-day Saint church's chronology dates the arrival in Honolulu of the first missionaries to reach Hawaii, among them George Q. Cannon, to December 12, 1850, four men called to Hawaii in 1843 having gone to Tahiti instead, and writes that by the end of 1853 the church had 4,000 members in Hawaii, with at least one branch on each inhabited island. Medium because at this step the mission had only begun, and its members are first counted three years later.⁷³²
1850	Kanesville	Present	Medium	Both	Most of the Latter-day Saints who left Nauvoo in 1846 reached Council Bluffs, in western Iowa, the Latter-day Saint church's history says, and by December 1847 Kanesville, later renamed Council Bluffs, was the Latter-day Saint church's emigration headquarters; in 1852 some 10,000 Latter-day Saints left there for Utah. Medium because the building block is all of Iowa, while the settlements lay at its western edge.⁷³³⁷³⁴
1850	Utah	Present	High	Both	Pioneers first entered the Salt Lake Valley in 1847; between then and 1868, 60,000 to 70,000 Latter-day Saints migrated to Utah and the surrounding region.⁷³⁵
1850 to 1900	Britain	Present	High	Both	Church membership in the United Kingdom and Ireland grew from 18,000 in 1848 to almost 33,000 at the end of 1851, more than in Utah, Bryan Grant writes. Emigration drew many away, and membership fell from 9,000 in 1870 to barely 2,600 in 1892, then more than doubled between 1897 and 1910. The building block for the United Kingdom also takes in Northern Ireland.⁷³⁶
1850 to 1900	Tubuai, the Tuamotus, and Tahiti	Present	High	Both	Addison Pratt organized a branch on Tubuai, in the Austral Islands, in 1844, and by 1846 branches had formed on Anaa, in the Tuamotus, and on Tahiti, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. Its missionaries left under government pressure in 1852 and returned in 1892, and in 1896 Sunday Schools were organized in branches throughout French Polynesia.⁷³⁷⁷³⁸
1900	Arizona	Present	Medium	Both	Latter-day Saints settled along the Little Colorado River from 1876 and soon after in the Salt River and Gila valleys, and the 1890 federal census counted 6,500 in Arizona, Charles Peterson writes; by 1900, he adds, they formed a distinctive cultural element there. Medium because the building block is the whole state, larger than the settled valleys.⁷³⁹⁷⁴⁰
1900	Chihuahua and Sonora	Present	Medium	Both	From 1885 Latter-day Saints from the United States founded colonies on the Casas Grandes River in northwestern Chihuahua and on the Bavispe River in northern Sonora, Shirley Robinson writes. The Latter-day Saint church's chronology says a stake was organized in the colonies of both states in 1895 and that most colonists left in 1912, during the Mexican Revolution. Medium because the building blocks are two whole states, larger than the colonies.⁷⁴¹⁷⁴²⁷⁴³
1900	Hawaii	Present	High	Both	By the end of 1853 the Latter-day Saint church had 4,000 members in Hawaii, with at least one branch on each inhabited island, and from 1865 Laie, on Oahu, was their gathering place, the church's chronology says; in December 1900 Hawaiian members marked fifty years since the first missionaries arrived. Richard Jensen names Laie and, before it, the Palawai Valley on Lanai as gathering places.⁷³²⁷⁴⁰
1900	Nevada	Present	Medium	Both	Ted Warner names Latter-day Saint towns in Nevada by 1900: Bunkerville, founded in 1877 in the Moapa Valley; Panaca, which he writes has remained largely Latter-day Saint; and Lund, Preston, and Georgetown, founded in White Pine County in 1898. Medium because the building block is the whole state, far larger than these towns.⁷³¹
1900	New Zealand	Present	Medium	Both	Missionaries first visited New Zealand in 1854 and, after the first Maori baptism in 1881, focused on preaching among the Maori; at the start of 1898 church members there numbered 4,000, 90 percent of them Maori, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. Medium because the source counts members for the whole country without placing them, so the building blocks are all its main regions.⁷⁴⁴
1900	Samoa	Present	High	Both	The Samoan Mission opened on Aunu'u in 1888 and spread to Upolu, Savai'i, and Tutuila, and its membership passed 1,000 in 1898, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. In 1900 those islands were divided between American Samoa (Tutuila and Aunu'u) and German Samoa (Upolu and Savai'i), today's Samoa.⁷⁴⁵⁷⁴⁶
1900	Scandinavia	Present	High	Both	In 1900 the Scandinavian Mission had sixty branches in nine conferences, named for Copenhagen, Aarhus, and Aalborg in Denmark, Stockholm, Göteborg, and Skåne in Sweden, and Christiania (now Oslo), Bergen, and Trondheim in Norway, with 4,535 members, John Langeland writes. The building blocks are the regions that hold those nine places; the conferences reached beyond them.⁷²⁸⁷²⁹⁷⁴⁷⁷³⁰⁷⁴⁸⁷⁴⁹⁷⁵⁰⁷⁵¹⁷⁵²
1900	Southern Alberta	Present	Medium	Both	Charles Ora Card chose the site of Cardston in April 1887, and by 1891 there were 359 Latter-day Saints in and around the town, Howard Palmer writes; the Latter-day Saint church's chronology adds that the Alberta Stake, the first outside the United States, was organized there in 1895. Medium because the settlements lay in the south, while the building block is the whole province.⁷⁵³⁷⁵⁴
1900	Southern Idaho	Present	Medium	Both	Latter-day Saints founded Franklin in 1860, the first permanent Anglo-American settlement in what became Idaho, and from 1880 spread through the Upper Snake River Valley, where the Bannock Stake reported 3,861 members in 1890, Robert Marcum and Richard Jensen write. Marcum adds that their influence in nineteenth-century Idaho was confined largely to the southeast; medium because the building block is the whole state.⁷⁵⁵⁷⁴⁰
1900	Switzerland and Germany	Present	Medium	Both	The Latter-day Saint church's chronologies count over 1,000 members living in Switzerland in 1900 and more than 2,000 in Germany in 1901; the two countries formed one mission from 1868. Medium because the sources describe each country as a whole, Germany's figure dates from a year after this step, and the building block is today's Germany.⁷⁵⁶⁷⁵⁷
1900	The Reorganized Church in Iowa and Missouri	Present	Medium	Both	This row shows the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, now Community of Christ, which took that name in 1860 under Joseph Smith III. Its headquarters moved to Lamoni, Iowa, in 1881, and by 1890 the center of its membership of about 25,000 had shifted from Illinois to Iowa, with Missouri, around St. Louis and Independence, ahead of Illinois, Richard Howard writes. Medium because its members were widely scattered.⁷⁵⁸⁷⁵⁹
1900	The San Luis Valley and western New Mexico	Present	Medium	Both	Richard Jensen writes that Latter-day Saints settled Colorado's San Luis Valley from 1878, where the San Luis Stake was organized at Manassa in 1883, and the Mancos River valley from 1880; in New Mexico he names Fruitland on the San Juan River (1878), Ramah, the Luna Valley (from 1883), and Bluewater (1894). Medium because the building blocks are two whole states, larger than these valleys.⁷⁶⁰⁷⁶¹
1900	Utah	Prevalent	High	Both	A. J. Simmonds, a historian at Utah State University, writes that Latter-day Saints made up 67 percent of Utah's population in 1900, down from 79 percent in 1880. Between 1847 and 1900, Ron Rood and Linda Thatcher write in the state's brief history of Utah, Latter-day Saints founded about 500 settlements in Utah and neighboring states.⁷⁶²⁷⁶³
1900	Wyoming	Present	Medium	Both	Ted Warner dates Latter-day Saint settlements in Wyoming's Star Valley to 1879 and in the Big Horn Basin to 1893 and 1900, and a branch near Fort Bridger to 1894; Richard Jensen also places the Big Horn Basin settlement by 1900. Medium because the building block is the whole state, larger than these valleys.⁷⁶⁴⁷⁴⁰

Events by faith

Buddhism

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
589 BCE, counted from the traditional birth date of 624 BCE, or 525 BCE on the historical timeline its author adopts, in a Theravada chronology	The awakening	Gaya (Bodh Gaya)²⁴	Both	Under a tree by the Nairanjana River, seven years after leaving home, the Buddha reached awakening, Bechert writes; a Theravada chronology puts it in 589 BCE, counting from the traditional birth date of 624 BCE, at Gaya, now Bodh Gaya. Siderits writes that he spent his remaining forty-five years teaching, and historians' dates for his death differ (see Kusinara).⁹²²¹⁰
589 BCE, counted from the traditional birth date of 624 BCE, or 525 BCE on the historical timeline its author adopts, in a Theravada chronology; about 528 BCE in Gomez's dating	The first teaching	Isipatana (Sarnath), near Varanasi²⁵	Both	At Isipatana near Varanasi, Bechert writes, the Buddha gave his first sermon and accepted his first disciples, founding the sangha, the monastic community. Gomez dates the first sermon, at Sarnath, to about 528 BCE, assuming that the traditional account is reliable in some of its details, and on the dates of 563 to 483 BCE, which he writes scholars generally tend to accept as "the least problematic, if not the most plausible."⁹²¹²²
544 BCE by Theravada reckoning; 487 or 486 BCE in most Western and Indian scholars' calculation; about 405 BCE in a view many scholars now hold	The Buddha's death	Kusinara (Kushinagar)²⁶	Both	The Buddha died at Kusinara at about eighty, and Theravada reckoning counts the Buddhist Era from his death. Bechert reports that dates proposed at a 1988 symposium ran from 486 to 261 BCE, and he argues for a death between 420 and 350 BCE.²²⁹¹⁰
the rains retreat after the Buddha's death (544 BCE by Theravada reckoning)	The first council	Rajagaha (Rajgir)¹⁴	Tradition's account	In the Theravada account, 500 monks who had reached full awakening, led by Mahakassapa, met at Rajagaha to recite the Buddha's teaching. Prebish writes that most Asian Buddhists hold the council to be historical, while virtually all Buddhist scholars doubt a council on the grand scale the scriptures describe.²²⁷⁶⁵⁹
444 BCE, counted from the traditional birth date of 624 BCE, or 380 BCE on the historical timeline its author adopts, in a Theravada chronology; probably the fourth century BCE, in Reynolds and Hallisey's dating	The second council	Vesali (Vaishali)¹⁵	Both	About a century after the Buddha's death, 700 monks met at Vesali over practices such as accepting gold and silver, and Prebish writes that almost all scholars accept this council as historical. Some hold that the first great split, between the Mahasanghika school and the Sthaviras (elders), followed soon after.²²⁷⁶⁵³²⁹
250 BCE in a Theravada chronology; around 250 BCE in Prebish's dating	Ashoka's council and missions	Pataliputra (Patna)²⁷	Both	Only Pali records, Prebish notes, tell of the council Ashoka convened at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa. Reynolds and Hallisey write that Ashoka's own edicts indicate he sponsored Buddhist missions within his empire, to the Greek-ruled northwest, and to Sri Lanka.⁷⁶⁵²²³²⁹
247 BCE in a Theravada chronology; in Ashoka's reign (about 270 to 232 BCE), in historians' dating	Buddhism reaches Sri Lanka	Anuradhapura⁷⁶⁶	Both	Theravada tradition credits Ashoka's son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta with bringing Buddhism to Sri Lanka, where Mahinda founded the Mahavihara monastery at Anuradhapura. Reynolds and Hallisey write that Ashoka's edicts indicate he sponsored Buddhist missions as far as Sri Lanka.³⁶²²³²
the reign of Emperor Ming (58 to 75 CE), in the best-known Chinese account; around the first century CE, in Teiser's dating	Buddhism reaches China	Luoyang, the Han capital⁷⁶⁷	Both	In the most famous Chinese account, Emperor Ming dreamed of a golden deity and sent a mission to the Yuezhi that returned with the first Buddhist text. Teiser writes that monks, texts, and images most likely began to trickle in during the middle of the Han dynasty, and that the first Buddhists, immigrants from the west, made their way to the capital, Luoyang.³⁹
372 CE	Buddhism reaches Korea	The Koguryo court, at today's Ji'an⁷⁶⁹	Both	Korean histories record that in 372 Fujian, ruler of the Former Qin, sent the monk Sundo to the Koguryo court with scriptures and images, and Buswell writes that the introduction is presumed to date from then. Koguryo moved its capital to Pyongyang only in 427, UNESCO notes; before that, Guonei City and Wandu Mountain City, at today's Ji'an, served alternately as its capital.⁴³⁷⁶⁸
the 750s	Todaiji and the provincial temples	Todaiji, Nara⁷⁷⁰	Both	The ruler Shomu (r. 724 to 749) began to establish temples and convents in every province, Ruppert writes, with Todaiji at Nara as the head temple of the system, whose construction was being completed in the 750s. A court chronicle and temple traditions date the first Buddhist images, gifts from the Korean kingdom of Paekche, to 552 or 538 CE.⁶²
about 779 CE	Samye, Tibet's first monastery	Samye⁵⁷	Both	The emperor Trisong Detsen founded Samye, Tibet's first Buddhist monastery, and invited the Indian monk Shantarakshita to ordain the first officially recognized Tibetan monks, Kapstein writes. In the Dalai Lama's telling, Tibetan tradition remembers the king, Shantarakshita, and Padmasambhava as the three who laid the foundations of Buddhism in Tibet.⁵⁶⁷⁷¹
from 1044 CE, in Aniruddha's reign	Theravada at Pagan (Bagan)	Pagan (Bagan)⁶³	Both	In the Glass Palace Chronicle's account, the Mon monk Shin Arahan converted Aniruddha, who came to power at Pagan in 1044 (Swearer elsewhere dates his reign from 1040), to Theravada; Swearer gives no year for the conversion. Swearer writes that Pagan's Buddhism before then seems to have been dominated by an eclectic Mahayana and Tantric form, and that the Sinhala Theravada lineage became normative there under Narapatisithu (1173 to 1210).³⁷³⁶
1197 CE (Nalanda) and 1203 CE (Vikramashila)	The sack of Nalanda	Nalanda district (the pin marks the district, not the monastery's ruins)¹⁷	Both	The end of Indian Buddhism has traditionally been identified with the sack of the monastic universities of Nalanda in 1197 and Vikramashila in 1203 by Turkish troops, Gomez writes. He argues that the main causes were internal, the most important seemingly Buddhism's gradual assimilation into Hinduism, and that afterward it lingered on only in isolated pockets.²¹
1578	Altan Khan and the Third Dalai Lama	Hohhot, Altan Khan's base⁷⁷²	Both	In 1578 Altan Khan and the nobility of southwestern Inner Mongolia met Sonam Gyatso, who received the title Dalai Lama, Kapstein and Atwood write; Atwood dates from this meeting the "Second Conversion" that made Mongolia a pervasively Buddhist country. The sources do not name where they met, so the pin marks Altan Khan's base at Hohhot.⁶⁷⁵⁶
October 14, 1956	Ambedkar's conversion	Nagpur⁷⁷⁴	Both	B. R. Ambedkar, a leader of the Dalits, the communities once treated as untouchable, led some 400,000 to 600,000 followers into Buddhism in Nagpur. The encyclopedia entry on the Buddhist Dalits reports many more conversions in the years that followed.²¹⁷⁷³

Christianity

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
probably around 6 BCE, on Bible Odyssey's Bethlehem page; 4 BCE, in the PBS chronology	Jesus's birth	Bethlehem, in Judea⁷⁷⁷	Both	The Gospels of Matthew and Luke tell of Jesus's birth in Bethlehem and his upbringing in Nazareth, in Galilee (Matthew 2:1, 2:23; Luke 2:4-7, 2:39); many scholars conclude that he was probably born in Nazareth, and Michael Bird replies that there was no absolute need to invent a Bethlehem birth to present him as Messiah. Bible Odyssey's Bethlehem page says the birth probably took place around 6 BCE, and a chronology made for the PBS series From Jesus to Christ dates it to 4 BCE.⁷⁷⁵⁷⁷⁶⁹⁶
about 30 CE, by the PBS chronology	Jesus's death and the first community	Jerusalem⁴²²	Both	The Gospels tell that Jesus was crucified at Jerusalem under Pontius Pilate and that his tomb was found empty (Mark 15:15, 15:22-25, 15:41, 16:1-8), and Catholic, Orthodox, and Reformed teaching holds that he rose from the dead; historians such as Paula Fredriksen hold that his followers were convinced he had been raised. The PBS chronology dates his death to about 30 CE, after which his early followers from Galilee settled in Jerusalem; no source found places a Christian community in Palestine at the 250 CE step, so the map shades it from 500 CE.⁷⁷⁵⁷⁷⁸⁸⁷⁷⁷⁹⁷⁸⁰⁹⁶¹⁰⁵
50 CE, by the PBS chronology	Paul's missions from Antioch	Antioch⁷⁸¹	Both	The church at Antioch sent Paul and Barnabas on their first missionary journey, Acts reports (Acts 13:1-3), and Paul founded many churches in Asia Minor and Greece, the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series holds. The PBS chronology dates Paul's departure from Antioch on his mission to the Aegean to 50 CE.⁸⁷⁹⁶⁷⁷⁵
64 CE	Persecution under Nero	Rome¹⁰⁶	Both	After the fire of 64, Tacitus records, Nero blamed the Christians and had many put to death. The Orthodox Church in America's teaching series holds that the apostles Peter and Paul were martyred in Rome around 67, and the PBS chronology places Paul's death between 60 and 65 and Peter's between 60 and 68.¹⁰⁵⁹⁶⁸⁷
301, in the Armenian Apostolic Church's account; 314, in Nersoyan's	Armenia's conversion	Vagarshapat (Echmiadzin)⁷⁸²	Both	The Armenian Apostolic Church dates the start of the nation's conversion, under King Trdat III and Gregory the Illuminator, to 301, and holds that, as a result, Christianity was proclaimed the state religion. Nersoyan dates the king's baptism after 313 and the establishment to 314, and writes that the royal city of Vagarshapat, which became the seat of Gregory's catholicate, was renamed Echmiadzin.¹²⁰⁸³
325	The Council of Nicaea	Nicaea⁷⁸⁴	Both	Bishops meeting at Nicaea in 325, in what the Orthodox Church in America calls the First Ecumenical Council, taught that the Son of God is uncreated and of one essence with the Father.⁷⁸³⁹⁶
about 347	Aksum's first bishop	Aksum⁹⁴	Both	Athanasius of Alexandria consecrated Frumentius, a Syrian from Tyre, as bishop of Aksum in about 347, Haile writes, after Frumentius had helped the city's Christians build a place of prayer; a letter of the emperor Constantius II to Ethiopia's rulers, Ezana and Sazana, concerns him. Rukuni calls Ezana, king of Aksum, the recorded first Christian ruler there; Haile notes that historians disagree about which king first adopted the faith.¹³²¹¹⁵
635	The Church of the East at Chang'an	Chang'an (Xi'an)¹³¹	Both	In 635, the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes, Alopen, a missionary of the Church of the East, visited Emperor Taizong at Chang'an and received permission to preach; a monument erected there in 781 records the mission's early history.¹⁰¹⁹⁸
988	The baptism of Kyiv	Kyiv⁷⁸⁵	Both	In 988, the Orthodox Church in America's teaching series writes, the people of Kyiv and the surrounding countryside were baptized in the Dnieper in the Orthodox faith their prince, Vladimir, had adopted. Harakas writes that Christianity then took hold readily, at least in the cities and around the capital.¹³³¹¹⁴
1054	The excommunications of 1054	Constantinople¹³⁵	Both	In 1054 papal legates in Constantinople excommunicated the patriarch Michael Cerularius, and he and his synod excommunicated them in turn; in the Orthodox account, the crusaders' conquest of the city in 1204 deepened the break between the Catholic and Orthodox churches. In 1965 Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras I removed the excommunications from memory.⁷⁸⁶⁷⁸⁷
1492 and 1493	The church comes to the Americas	Santo Domingo (Hispaniola)¹⁵⁸	Both	Rooy dates the beginning of Latin American church history to the Spanish arrival at Santo Domingo in 1492, and the second expedition, in 1493, carried a church delegation. He writes of the cruelty of the conquest and of Dominicans such as Bartolomé de Las Casas who denounced the abuse of the native peoples.¹³⁶
31 October 1517	Luther's Ninety-Five Theses	Wittenberg⁷⁹¹	Both	On 31 October 1517, UNESCO's World Heritage listing writes, Martin Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses at the castle church in Wittenberg, launching the Reformation. The theses were titled a disputation on the power and efficacy of indulgences, which Catholic teaching defines as a remission before God of the temporal punishment due to sins whose guilt has already been forgiven.⁷⁸⁸⁷⁸⁹⁷⁹⁰
cathedral standing by 1608; catechism in Kikongo, 1624	Kongo's Christian capital	Mbanza Kongo¹⁵⁶	Both	After the Portuguese arrived in the fifteenth century, UNESCO's World Heritage listing writes, the Kingdom of Kongo adopted Christianity while keeping elements of its own customs. Its cathedral was standing in 1608, when the pope accredited in Rome Kongo's ambassador, the first from a sub-Saharan African state to the Vatican, and in 1624 the first catechism in the Kikongo language was written at the Jesuit college in the capital; no source found describes the church there after 1624, so the map shades Kongo only at 1500 and 1600.¹⁵⁵
April 1906	Azusa Street and Pentecostalism	Los Angeles⁷⁹³	Both	The Apostolic Faith Mission at 312 Azusa Street in Los Angeles, led by William Joseph Seymour, an African American pastor, became one of the first centers of Pentecostalism in April 1906; within 18 months, the World Council of Churches writes, it had sent evangelists across North America and missionaries to Europe, the Middle East, Africa, Asia, and Mexico.⁷⁹²

Hinduism

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
before 3102 BCE, in the yuga reckoning; roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, in Witzel's dating	The Vedas	The Sarasvati region (Haryana)⁷⁹⁴	Both	The yuga reckoning, as the Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions summarizes it, has the Vedas split into four in the age before the Kali Yuga, which began in 3102 BCE, the year the Hindu timeline in Dancing with Siva also gives. Witzel dates the Vedas to roughly 1500 to 500 BCE, composed by Indo-Aryan speakers newly arrived in the northwest, while Danino argues that the Rig Veda, which praises the Sarasvati as a mighty river, dates from before 2600 BCE.²⁴⁴²⁴⁶²⁴⁵²⁴⁸
4th century BCE	Vasudeva worship near Mathura	Mathura⁷⁹⁵	Both	Dandekar holds that Megasthenes, writing in the 4th century BCE, was describing the worship of Vasudeva, the god the Bhagavad Gita identifies with Krishna, when he wrote of the people of the Mathura region honoring Herakles.²⁵¹
4th to 13th centuries CE, in UNESCO's description; some inscriptions may date to the 3rd century, Narayanan writes	My Son, the sanctuary of Champa	My Son⁵¹	Both	UNESCO describes My Son as the religious and political capital of the Champa kingdom for most of its existence, where tower temples were built over ten centuries, most of all to Shiva. Narayanan writes that some of the early inscriptions there may date to as early as the 3rd century CE.⁵¹²⁵⁸
459 CE	An inscription at the Pashupati temple	The Pashupati temple, Kathmandu valley²⁵⁹	Both	Sanderson reports an inscription dated 459 CE that came to light during renovation work at the Pashupati temple, earlier than the first date (the year 464 to 465 CE) in the edition of Licchavi inscriptions he cites. He calls Pashupati Nepal's national Shiva, to whom all Nepalese kings from the time of Amshuvarman have declared their allegiance.⁵²
788 to 820 CE in the Sringeri monastery's account; the 8th century, as many scholars believe, or the 9th in another account	Shankara and the Sringeri monastery	Sringeri⁸⁰⁰	Both	The Sringeri Sharada Peetham, a monastery in South India, says Shankara founded it as the first of four seats of learning, and gives his dates as 788 to 820 CE. He is regarded as the promoter of Advaita Vedanta as a distinct school, though its origins are older, and many scholars place him in the 8th century.⁷⁹⁶⁷⁹⁷⁷⁹⁸⁷⁹⁹
9th century CE for Loro Jonggrang, in UNESCO's synthesis (its short description says the 10th); about the mid-9th century, Narayanan writes	The Prambanan temple	Prambanan, Java²⁶⁸	Both	The main Hindu temple at Prambanan, Loro Jonggrang, is dedicated to Shiva, with shrines to Vishnu and Brahma and reliefs of the Ramayana. UNESCO's page says the compound was built in the 10th century in its short description; its synthesis dates Loro Jonggrang to the 9th. Narayanan places it in the Sanjaya (Mataram) kingdom, near Yogyakarta.²⁶⁸²⁵⁸
consecrated in 1009 to 1010 CE, Rajaraja I's 25th regnal year	The Brihadisvara temple, Thanjavur	Thanjavur²⁶⁶	Both	UNESCO writes that the Chola king Rajaraja I began the Brihadisvara temple and consecrated it in his 25th regnal year, 1009 to 1010 CE. It remains a living temple, where worship established over a thousand years ago continues daily.²⁶⁶
1017 to 1137 CE in traditional accounts; 1077 to 1157 CE in recent scholarship	Ramanuja	Sriperumbudur⁸⁰²	Both	Ramanuja, the chief proponent of Vishishtadvaita, was born in the small township of Sriperumbudur, on the outskirts of modern Chennai. Traditional accounts give his life as 1017 to 1137 CE; recent scholarship places it from 1077 to 1157.⁸⁰¹²⁵²
12th century; built under Suryavarman II, who reigned 1131 to about 1150	Angkor Wat	Angkor, near Siem Reap⁸⁰³	Both	Suryavarman II built Angkor Wat and dedicated it to Vishnu, Narayanan writes, and in her survey of Vaishnavism she calls it one of the biggest Vishnu temples in the world. Buddhists who used it in later centuries called it a wat, a place of worship.²⁵⁸²⁵²
1333 to the 18th century, in Hiltebeitel's dating of Vijayanagar rule and its successors; UNESCO dates the capital at Hampi to the 14th to 16th centuries	Vijayanagara's capital at Hampi	Hampi⁸⁰⁴	Both	UNESCO describes Hampi as the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire, which it calls the last great Hindu kingdom, with temple complexes such as the Vitthala temple. Hiltebeitel writes that the regional defense of Hindu traditions by the Vijayanagar rulers and their successors fostered the Hindu ideal of the territorial kingdom.⁸⁰⁴²⁵⁰
February 27, 1486	Chaitanya	Navadvip⁸⁰⁵	Both	Chaitanya, whom his devotees affirm to be Krishna appearing within recent human history, was born at Navadvip, then the center of Sanskrit learning in Muslim-ruled Bengal, O'Connell writes. By the time of British India's census reports, he adds, most middle-caste Bengali Hindus identified as Vaishnavas of Chaitanya's tradition.²⁶⁴
May 30, 1845	Indentured laborers reach Trinidad	Trinidad⁸⁰⁶	Both	The first 225 indentured laborers from India reached Trinidad on May 30, 1845, to work the sugar estates, Klass writes, and the overwhelming majority of those who came considered themselves Hindus. By the end of indenture in 1920, about 143,900 people had come from South Asia.²⁹²
September 19, 1893	Vivekananda at the Parliament of Religions	Chicago⁸⁰⁸	Both	Vivekananda attended the World's Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893, Hiltebeitel writes, where his paper on Hinduism was read on September 19. In it he said that Hindus hold their revelation, the Vedas, to be without beginning and without end.²⁵⁰⁸⁰⁷
September 1965 (arrival); founded 1966	ISKCON in the United States	New York City⁸¹²	Both	A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, a teacher in the Gaudiya Vaishnava line, arrived in New York City in September 1965 and established the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) in the United States. Another encyclopedia entry dates ISKCON's founding to 1966.⁸⁰⁹⁸¹⁰⁸¹¹

Islam

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
610 CE, in Armstrong's retelling of the early Muslim biographies; the early 7th century, in Crone's dating of a prophet among the Arabs	The first revelation	Mecca (the cave of Hira lies just outside the city)³⁴⁰	Both	In the Muslim account, the first revelation was the command to read that opens the Quran's 96th chapter. Al-Bukhari's Sunni collection tells, as Aisha narrated it, how an angel brought it to Muhammad in the cave of Hira near Mecca, and al-Kafi, a Twelver Shia collection, reports a saying that it was the first passage revealed; Armstrong, retelling the early biographies, dates it to 610. Crone accepts that a prophet was active among the Arabs in the early 7th century. Noting that no source outside Arabia mentions Mecca before the conquests, she suspects that doctrine may shape the tradition's placing of his career there, yet judges that "the chances are that most of what the tradition tells us about the prophet's life is more or less correct in some sense or other." Wansbrough's Quranic Studies (1977), one of the works that Shoemaker writes questioned the standard scholarly account, placed the shaping of the Quran's traditions largely in Syria, Palestine, and Mesopotamia rather than the Hijaz; Shoemaker reports that it met an often extremely hostile reception.³³⁹⁸¹³⁸¹⁴³⁸³⁸¹⁵⁸¹⁶
615 CE	The first migration to Abyssinia	The court of Aksum⁸¹⁷	Both	Levtzion and Chande date the first Islamic migration to Abyssinia, now Ethiopia, to 615, when Muslim refugees escaping persecution in Mecca went to the court of Aksum. They write that its impact there at this early stage is not clear.³³⁵
622 CE (the Hijra); Muhammad's death normally placed in 632	The Hijra to Medina	Yathrib, later called Medina³⁴¹	Both	In the Muslim account, Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib, later called Medina, in 622, and he died in 632. Al-Bukhari's Sunni collection reports from Ibn Abbas, and the Twelver Shia collection al-Kafi also holds, that he stayed in Mecca for thirteen years after his call and then ten in Medina. Crone holds that a pact between Muhammad and the people of Yathrib is broadly authentic, and notes that a death date two or three years after 632 cannot be wholly ruled out.³³⁹⁸¹⁸⁸¹⁹³⁸³⁸¹⁵
644 to 656 CE (Uthman's caliphate), in the Muslim account; 650 CE or earlier, in Sinai's judgment of the default view; 685 to 705, in Shoemaker's dating	Uthman's standard copy of the Quran	Medina³⁴¹	Both	In al-Bukhari's Sunni collection, the caliph Uthman, warned that the people of Syria and Iraq recited the Quran differently, had copies made from the sheets Hafsa kept, sent one to every province, and ordered the other copies burned. The Shia scholar al-Khoei holds that the Quran already existed as a complete collection in Muhammad's lifetime, and that Uthman (ruled 644 to 656) united Muslims on one authoritative reading. Shoemaker argues that the standard text dates from the caliph Abd al-Malik (685 to 705); Nicolai Sinai, surveying the arguments against that dating, concludes that unless passages of the Quran with a distinct style and vocabulary are compellingly placed in the late seventh century, dating its standard consonantal text, apart from some features of spelling, to 650 CE or earlier ought to be the default view.⁸²⁰⁸²¹⁸²²³⁶¹⁸¹⁶⁸²³⁸²⁴
680 CE	Husayn's death at Karbala	Karbala⁸²⁵	Both	Husayn, Ali's second son and Muhammad's grandson, was killed with many of his relatives at Karbala in 680, Madelung writes, and a movement of Penitents arose in Kufa, lamenting his death at his grave and seeking revenge on those responsible. Nasr writes that, for Twelver Shia, the commemoration of his martyrdom on the tenth day of Muharram marks the peak of the religious calendar in emotional intensity.³³⁰³⁸³
the early 8th century, in Dillon's account of the inscriptions; the Arab Mosque built in 1009 to 1010	Muslim traders at Quanzhou	Quanzhou, Fujian³⁴⁴	Both	Traders from the Middle East settled in the port of Quanzhou, Dillon writes, where gravestones and stelae in Arabic and Persian give evidence of a Muslim community already well established in the early eighth century; its Arab Mosque was built in 1009 to 1010. Johns writes that reliable evidence for Muslims in China from the beginning of the eighth century suggests that Muslim seamen and merchants were already breaking their long voyages at harbors along the coasts of Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Borneo, northern Java, the Celebes, and the southern Philippines.³⁴³¹⁸¹
755 or 756 CE (the sources differ); a caliphate from 929	The Umayyad emirate of Cordoba	Cordoba, al-Andalus⁸²⁶	Both	An Umayyad prince who escaped the Abbasids, Abd al-Rahman I, made himself ruler of al-Andalus with Cordoba as his capital; Laroui and Bodman date the emirate from 755, and Fierro his reign from 756. UNESCO writes that some 300 mosques were built in Cordoba, which became the seat of a caliphate in 929.¹¹⁹³¹⁷³⁶¹³⁶⁰
969 CE (the Fatimids in Cairo); al-Azhar founded on April 4, 970	The Fatimids in Cairo and al-Azhar	Cairo⁸²⁷	Both	The Fatimid caliphate, whose caliphs were Ismaili Shia imams, established itself in Cairo in 969, Bodman writes, and Poonawala dates the founding of the al-Azhar mosque there to 970. Al-Azhar became Sunni Islam's leading seat of learning.³⁶¹³³⁰³⁶²
before 1067 or 1068, when al-Tusi died	Al-Tusi and the school of Najaf	Najaf⁴²⁴	Both	Nasr writes that Muhammad al-Tusi (died 1067 or 1068), author of Kitab al-tahdhib and Kitab al-istibsar, two of the four collections of the sayings of Muhammad and the imams from which all later Twelver thought drew, founded the Twelver university at Najaf, which survives as the most important and ancient Shia center of learning. Najaf, he writes, is where Ali is buried, though some hold that his tomb is at Mazar-i Sharif, in Afghanistan. Madelung calls al-Tusi the most important early systematizer of Twelver Shia law.³⁸³³³⁰
1206 to 1526 (the Delhi sultanate, in Hiltebeitel's dating); the Qutb Minar, early 13th century	The Delhi sultanate and the Qutb Minar	The Qutb Minar, Delhi³⁷⁹	Both	UNESCO dates the Qutb Minar to the early 13th century and calls the Quwwatu'l-Islam beside it, completed by Qutb ud din Aibak and Iltutmish, the oldest mosque in northern India; it places the complex after Islamic rulers first established their power in the subcontinent in the 12th century. Hiltebeitel dates the Delhi sultanate to 1206 to 1526.³⁷⁸²⁵⁰
1258 CE	The Mongols take Baghdad	Baghdad²⁴²	Both	After the Abbasid revolution of 750, Laroui writes, the capital moved to Baghdad, and Bodman writes that the Mongol assault on it in 1258 extinguished the classical caliphate. The Mongols who ruled in Islamic lands soon became Muslim, he adds.³⁶¹³¹⁷
in the lifetime of Baha al-Din Naqshband, 1317 or 1318 to 1389	The Naqshbandi order in Bukhara	Bukhara³⁵⁸	Both	Bennigsen and Bryan write that Baha al-Din Naqshband founded the Naqshbandi order, a Sufi, or mystical, brotherhood, in Bukhara. Akiner writes that its members practiced a silent dhikr, a set of devotions, and that the order spread to India, China, and the Ottoman Empire and, in recent times, to Western Europe.²⁰²³¹⁸⁸²⁸
founded around 1400, and Muslim shortly after	The sultanate of Malacca	Malacca³⁸⁹	Both	Johns writes that Malacca became Muslim shortly after its founding around 1400 and, through its dependencies on the Malay Peninsula and in Sumatra, carried Muslim influence to other parts of the archipelago until the Portuguese took it in 1511.¹⁸¹
15th and 16th centuries, in UNESCO's account of its golden age	Timbuktu, a center of learning	Timbuktu³⁸⁸	Both	UNESCO calls Timbuktu, home of the Sankore university, an intellectual and spiritual capital and a center for the spread of Islam in Africa in the 15th and 16th centuries. Levtzion and Chande write that Askiya Muhammad (1493 to 1528) revived it as a great center of Islamic learning, and that Moroccan forces took it in 1591.³⁸⁶³³⁵
1804 to 1810 (the campaigns)	Usuman dan Fodio and the Sokoto caliphate	Hausaland (Sokoto)⁴³⁶	Both	Usuman dan Fodio, a Fulani scholar of the Qadiri order, led a jihad whose campaigns, from 1804 to 1810, engulfed the Hausa states and created the Sokoto caliphate, Levtzion and Chande write. Hausa society was transformed, they add, and the state and its institutions became Islamized.³³⁵

Judaism

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
2448 in the rabbinic count (1313 BCE), in the Chabad.org timeline; Dever finds no direct archaeological evidence for the Exodus	The giving of the Torah at Sinai	Mount Sinai (location disputed; the pin marks Jebel Musa)⁸³⁰	Both	In the Torah's account God gave the Torah to Israel at Mount Sinai after the Exodus, which the Chabad.org timeline dates to 2448 in the rabbinic count (1313 BCE); Dever finds no direct evidence for the Exodus and judges that what happened was more modest than the account, while Hoffmeier, then at Wheaton College, argued for the authenticity of the Exodus tradition. There is no Jewish tradition of the mountain's location, the Encyclopaedia Judaica notes; the pin marks Jebel Musa, which Christian monks had identified with Sinai by the fourth century CE and which came to prevail over other identifications, and scholars propose other sites in Sinai, the Negev, and Arabia.⁷⁴⁷¹⁴⁷⁶⁷²⁶⁸²⁹
about 1206 BCE, in Dever's dating; the fifth year of Merneptah's reign, which the Encyclopaedia Judaica dates about 1224 to 1214 BCE	The earliest mention of Israel outside the Hebrew Bible	Thebes, where the stele was found⁵⁰⁴	Both	The victory stele of the Egyptian king Merneptah, which Dever dates to about 1206 BCE, names a people called Israel in Canaan; Dever notes that it says nothing of an escape from Egypt. The Encyclopaedia Judaica records that it was found at Thebes in 1896 and dates it to the fifth year of Merneptah's reign, which it places about 1224 to 1214 BCE.⁴⁷⁶⁸³¹
587 or 586 BCE, in historians' dating; 3338 in the rabbinic count (422 or 423 BCE)	The destruction of the First Temple	Jerusalem⁴⁸⁴	Both	Historians date the Babylonian conquest of Judah and the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple to 587 or 586 BCE; the rabbinic count, which Eisen writes rests on the second-century work Seder Olam, dates the destruction to the Jewish year 3338, 165 years later. Eisen traces the gap to the length each count gives the Persian period.⁴⁷⁸⁴⁸⁸⁴⁸⁵⁴⁷¹
538 BCE, in historians' dating; 3390 in the rabbinic count (371 BCE)	The return from Babylon	Babylon⁴⁸⁰	Both	Swartz dates the return of Judah's leaders from exile under the Persian emperor Cyrus, who allowed them to rebuild the Temple, to 538 BCE. The Chabad.org timeline places Zerubbabel's return to the land of Israel in the year 3390 of the rabbinic count (371 BCE) and the Second Temple's completion in 3412 (349 BCE).⁴⁷⁸⁴⁷¹
70 CE, in historians' dating; 3829 in the rabbinic count, which the Chabad.org timeline gives as 69 CE	The destruction of the Second Temple	Jerusalem⁴⁸⁴	Both	A revolt against Rome that began in 66 CE ended with the destruction of Jerusalem and its Temple in 70 CE, Swartz writes. Eisen writes that the gap between the rabbinic and historians' dates almost disappears by this event.⁴⁷⁸⁴⁷¹⁴⁸⁵
70 to 132 CE	The sages at Yavneh	Jabneh (Yavneh)⁸³³	Both	After the fall of Jerusalem, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, the Sanhedrin was reconstituted at Jabneh, first under Johanan ben Zakkai, who made it the center of the study of Jewish law in place of Jerusalem, and then under Gamaliel II. Between 70 and 132 CE most of the tannaim, the teachers of the Mishnah's era, taught there.⁸³²
about 200 CE, in Swartz's dating; around 3949 in the rabbinic count (189 CE)	The Mishnah	Sepphoris (Zippori)⁵⁰⁷	Both	Under the leadership of Judah ha-Nasi, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, the Mishnah was edited and published at Sepphoris, where the Sanhedrin had moved. Swartz dates its compilation to about 200 CE, and the Chabad.org timeline to around 3949 (189 CE).⁸³⁴⁴⁷⁸⁴⁷¹
about 500 CE, in the Orthodox Union's account; early sixth century CE, in Swartz's dating of its redaction	The Babylonian Talmud	Babylonia (the academies of Sura and Pumbedita)⁸³⁶	Both	The Orthodox Union credits Rav Ashi and his colleagues with compiling the Babylonian Talmud about 500 CE, and Swartz dates its redaction to the early sixth century; the Encyclopaedia Judaica places its composition in the academies of Sura and Pumbedita. The pin marks Babylonia, not the site of either academy, which the sources do not place by modern names.⁸³⁵⁴⁷⁸⁴³²
from the middle of the 10th century; joint ordinances about 1220	The ShUM communities of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz	Mainz⁵⁵⁹	Both	UNESCO calls the ShUM sites of Speyer, Worms, and Mainz the cradle of Ashkenazic Jewish tradition and writes that their scholars played a prominent role as the fundamentals of Ashkenazic Judaism were established between the 10th and 13th centuries; the communities passed joint ordinances around 1220. A community in Mainz is indisputable from the middle of the tenth century, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records.⁵⁵⁸⁵⁵⁷
1001	Copper plates for Joseph Rabban	Cranganore (Kodungallur)³³⁴	Both	In 1001, Katz writes, the Cheraman Perumal emperor gave copper plates to the leader of the Jews, Joseph Rabban, chartering an autonomous Jewish principality under the Hindu ruler; Kochi's local traditions place Joseph Rabban at Shingly, which Katz identifies as Cranganore, where ibn Wahab had described a Jewish community in the ninth century.²⁶⁹⁵²⁰
1163	The first synagogue in Kaifeng	Kaifeng⁵⁹⁶	Both	Jews arrived in Kaifeng probably before 1127, from India or Persia, Loewenthal writes, and built their first synagogue there in 1163.⁵⁹⁵
1492	The expulsion from Spain	Granada⁸³⁷	Both	On March 31, 1492, the edict expelling the Jews from Spain was signed in Granada, and in May the exodus began, the Encyclopaedia Judaica's Spain entry records, with most exiles, around 100,000 people, finding temporary refuge in Portugal (which expelled its Jews in 1496 to 1497) and the rest going to North Africa and Turkey. Its entry on the Sephardim names North Africa, Italy, and especially Turkey, where Bayazid II admitted them.⁵³⁷⁵³⁸⁴⁷⁸
16th century	The teachers of Safed	Safed⁵²⁴	Both	In 16th-century Safed, Swartz writes, teachers such as Isaac Luria redrew the Kabbalah's picture of the cosmos and of redemption; the entry on the Sephardim writes that exiles from Spain played a decisive role in making the town the spiritual center of world Jewry, where Joseph Caro produced the Shulchan Arukh.⁴⁷⁸⁵³⁸⁵²³
1654	The first Jews in New Amsterdam	New Amsterdam (New York)⁶⁶⁸	Both	In 1654, 23 Jews fleeing Portuguese reprisals in Brazil found refuge in the Dutch colony of New Amsterdam, later New York, where they founded the congregation Shearith Israel, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records.⁵³⁸
mid-1730s	The Baal Shem Tov and the rise of Hasidism	Tluste⁸³⁹	Both	In the mid-1730s, the Encyclopaedia Judaica records, Israel ben Eliezer, the Baal Shem Tov, who had settled in Tluste about 1730, revealed himself as a healer and leader; Hasidic tradition fixes the moment on his 36th birthday. Swartz writes that the movement he inspired spread throughout eastern Europe under leaders called tsaddiqim.⁸³⁸⁴⁷⁸

Latter-day Saints

Date	Event	Place	Account	Note
spring 1820, in Joseph Smith's account; his earliest surviving account dates to 1832	Joseph Smith's First Vision	A grove near the Smith family home, near Palmyra, New York⁸⁴⁵	Both	Joseph Smith wrote that in the spring of 1820, at about 14, he prayed in a grove near his home and that God the Father and Jesus appeared to him; the earliest of his surviving accounts dates to 1832. Writers read the accounts in different ways: in 1967 Wesley Walters, a Presbyterian pastor, argued that records place the local revival in 1824 and 1825, and in 1969 Richard Bushman, a Latter-day Saint scholar, responded that records place revivals near Palmyra in 1819 and 1820.⁸⁴⁰⁸⁴¹⁸⁴²⁸⁴³⁸⁴⁴
April 6, 1830	The Church of Christ organized	Fayette or Manchester, New York (accounts differ; the pin marks Fayette)⁸⁴⁸	Both	The Latter-day Saint church holds that Joseph Smith and Oliver Cowdery organized the Church of Christ on April 6, 1830, in western New York, ordaining each other elders. No minutes survive, and firsthand accounts disagree on the place: a history Smith began in 1839 names Fayette, and an article he wrote in 1842 names Manchester.⁸⁴⁶⁸⁴⁷
1831 to 1838; the temple dedicated in 1836	Kirtland, the first gathering place	Kirtland, Ohio⁸⁵⁰	Both	A revelation of December 1830 named Ohio the first gathering place, and Kirtland served as the Latter-day Saint church's headquarters for much of the 1830s; its temple was dedicated in 1836, the Latter-day Saint church's history says. After the Kirtland Safety Society collapsed in 1837, Joseph Smith and other leaders escaped Kirtland for Far West, Missouri, early in 1838.⁸⁴⁹⁸⁴⁷
1831 to 1839	Zion in Missouri, and the expulsion	Independence, Jackson County, Missouri⁸⁵³	Both	A revelation of July 1831 designated Independence the city of Zion, and church members were driven from it in 1833, the Encyclopedia of American Religions writes; they settled in Caldwell, Ray, and Daviess Counties, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. After armed conflict in 1838 and Governor Lilburn Boggs's order of October 27, which the Latter-day Saint church's history calls the Extermination Order, they left Missouri for Illinois.⁸⁵¹⁸⁴⁷⁸⁵²
July 1837	The first mission to Britain	Preston, England⁸⁵⁴	Both	Seven missionaries landed at Liverpool in July 1837, baptized the first nine British converts in the river Ribble at Preston, and organized a branch there, Bryan Grant writes. By the end of 1851 the Latter-day Saint church counted almost 33,000 members in the United Kingdom and Ireland, more than lived in Utah.⁷³⁶
1839 to 1846	Nauvoo	Commerce, later Nauvoo, Illinois⁸⁵⁶	Both	Latter-day Saints settled at Commerce, later Nauvoo, in 1839 after being driven from Missouri, and there Joseph Smith introduced proxy baptism for the dead, marriage for eternity, and the endowment, the Latter-day Saint church's history says. Between February and September 1846 thousands left the city, most of them for Council Bluffs, in western Iowa.⁸⁵⁵⁷³³
1844	The first Polynesian converts	Tubuai, Austral Islands⁸⁵⁷	Both	Addison Pratt, set apart in 1843 with three others to preach in Hawaii, stayed on Tubuai at the request of King Tamatoa; there the first Polynesian converts were baptized in July 1844, and Pratt organized a branch of eleven members, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. Benjamin Grouard's preaching on Anaa, in the Tuamotus, soon led to five branches with 620 members.⁷³⁷
June 27, 1844	Joseph Smith killed, and the movement divides	Carthage, Illinois⁸⁶¹	Both	A mob killed Joseph Smith and his brother Hyrum at the jail in Carthage on June 27, 1844. On August 8 the assembled church members voted to sustain the Twelve Apostles, led by Brigham Young, while Sidney Rigdon, James Strang, and others formed their own movements, and in 1860 Joseph Smith III accepted leadership of the church now called Community of Christ.⁸⁵⁸⁸⁵⁹⁸⁶⁰
July 22 and 24, 1847	Arrival in the Salt Lake Valley	The Salt Lake Valley, Utah⁸⁶²	Both	The first company of Latter-day Saint pioneers left Winter Quarters in April 1847, the church's history says, and an advance party entered the Salt Lake Valley on July 22 and the rest of the company on July 24, Ron Rood and Linda Thatcher write. Between 1847 and 1868, 60,000 to 70,000 Latter-day Saints migrated to Utah and the surrounding region, the Latter-day Saint church's history says.⁷⁶³⁷³⁵
1885; a stake centered at Colonia Juárez in 1895	The colonies in Mexico	Colonia Juárez, Chihuahua⁸⁶³	Both	In 1885 an initial group of about 400 Latter-day Saint colonists from the United States arrived in Chihuahua, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says, and Shirley Robinson writes that the colonies were planned as a place of refuge from persecution in the United States and as a springboard for teaching the gospel in Latin America, that scouts sent by Brigham Young looked for places to settle in 1875, and that settlement began only after the persecution that followed the Edmunds Act of 1882; many of the families practiced plural marriage. Colonia Juárez became the center of a stake in 1895, and most colonists left during the Mexican Revolution in 1912.⁷⁴¹⁷⁴²
April 26, 1887	Cardston, Alberta	Lee's Creek, later Cardston, Alberta⁸⁶⁴	Both	Charles Ora Card, arrested in July 1886 under the American laws against plural marriage, led a small group north and on April 26, 1887, chose the site of Cardston, Howard Palmer writes. The Alberta Stake, organized there in 1895, was the first outside the United States, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says.⁷⁵³⁷⁵⁴
November 27 to 30, 1919	The temple at Laie	Laie, Oahu, Hawaii⁸⁶⁵	Both	Brigham Young purchased land at Laie in 1865 as a new gathering place for Latter-day Saints in Hawaii, and in November 1919 the Latter-day Saint church dedicated a temple there, the first it built outside Utah after leaving Nauvoo, its chronologies say.⁷³²⁸⁴⁷
October 30, 1978	The first temple in South America	São Paulo, Brazil⁸⁶⁸	Both	Spencer W. Kimball dedicated the São Paulo Brazil Temple, the first in South America, on October 30, 1978, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. The church's essay on race and the priesthood writes that the sacrifices of Black and mixed-ancestry members who helped build it, knowing the restriction then in force would keep them out, moved church leaders before the June 1978 revelation that ended the restriction.⁸⁶⁶⁸⁶⁷
December 9 and 10, 1978	The first branches in Ghana	Cape Coast, Ghana⁸⁷⁰	Both	Congregations formed in Ghana from the 1960s by R. A. F. Mensah and J. W. B. Johnson grew to about 1,000 members before any missionaries came, the Latter-day Saint church's chronology says. After the June 1978 revelation, missionary couples arrived in December, baptized the first 125 converts near Cape Coast on December 9, and organized the Cape Coast Branch the next day, with Johnson as its president.⁸⁶⁹

Not yet sourced

These places and steps are blank on the map because no source found yet places the faith there at that step, because a source found has not yet been placed on today's regions, or because a source records the community's end, the sources disagree, or a count is too small to draw by itself. Each entry says which.

Buddhism

Sri Lanka (250 BCE): A Theravada chronology dates Mahinda's mission to 247 BCE, after this step, and the historians cited date it only to Ashoka's reign; the Anuradhapura pin marks it.
Gandhara (Taxila) (250 BCE): Hartmann dates the Dharmarajika stupa at Taxila only "to the time of the Mauryas", with no year that places it at this step.
Afghanistan (Kandahar, Lampaka, and the Laghman valley) (250 BCE and 1 CE): Hartmann names Ashoka's inscriptions there and writes that the spread into Afghanistan began not later than the third century BCE, but names no Buddhist community there at these steps.
Afghanistan beyond Kapisi (including Bamiyan) (500 CE and 750 CE): Hartmann names Bamiyan's statues and Dharmaguptaka texts found in Afghanistan without dates that fix them to these steps.
Bactria and Sogdiana (Termez, Merv, Qurghan-tubba, and Samarkand) (250 CE to 750 CE): Hartmann names these places without dates, Russell, in the Encyclopaedia Iranica, names a Buddha image in the monastery at Qara Tepe, in Old Termez, without a date, and Reynolds and Hallisey name only "Central Asia" for the steps before the sixth century.
Central Asia (1 CE): Reynolds and Hallisey name Central Asia among the lands where Buddhism became a powerful force by the first century CE, without naming a place in it.
Gandhara and the northwest (750 CE and 1000 CE): No source found describes Buddhism there at these steps; Britannica dates Gandhara's art of Indian Buddhist and Greco-Roman styles from the first century BCE to the sixth or seventh century CE.
India's northeastern hills, Ladakh, and the islands (1 CE to 500 CE): Reynolds and Hallisey describe "virtually all of India" without naming these areas.
Kashmir (1000 CE and 1250): Sanderson's account of Buddhist foundations by Kashmir's kings ends with Jayapida (about 773 to 805), and Gomez writes that the last great scholars fled Kashmir and Bihar as the Turks advanced, without a date that places Buddhism in Kashmir at these steps.
Valabhi (Gujarat) (750 CE): Sanderson dates the Maitraka kings' support of Buddhism at Valabhi to the sixth and seventh centuries, with dated evidence from Guhasena's reign (about 553 to 569) to Xuanzang's visit in the 630s, and writes that by the dynasty's later years Shaivism had become firmly established as its religion; Gomez names the university of Valabhi without a date near this step.
Bengal beyond East Bengal (West Bengal) (1250 to 1900): Gomez writes that certain forms of Tantra could survive, mostly in Bengal and the Himalayan foothills, without naming a place in Bengal or a later date that carries them to these steps; Sanderson names Madhusena, the Sena king of Gauda, among the Buddhist royals of eastern India, dating him by a manuscript colophon of 1289, 39 years after 1250. East Bengal is drawn from Gomez's statement that some Theravadins survived there until the partition.
The rest of India (1250 to 1900): Gomez writes that after the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Indian Buddhism continued in isolated pockets. Of the places he names, East Bengal, where he writes that some Theravadins survived until the partition, is drawn; Assam, where he writes that some remained after the partition, is not, since he names it only for the years after the partition. He also writes that certain forms of Tantra survived, mostly in Bengal and in the Himalayan foothills, without naming a place or a date there, and no source found yet dates Buddhist communities in Himachal Pradesh or Arunachal Pradesh at these steps. His account of the Mahabodhi Society, founded in 1891 to restore the temple of Bodh Gaya, does not place a community there. Gordon's geography of 1699 names Asem (Assam) and Tipra (Tripura) among the states that acknowledged the king of Pegu's sovereignty, in the peninsula beyond the Ganges, whose people he describes as generally followers of religions other than Islam and Christianity; the row for that peninsula at 1700 reads his word for Buddhists only where a cited source describes Buddhism in the land, and none in hand does so for Assam or Tripura at or near that step.
The Kathmandu valley (250 BCE to 250 CE): Sources for these steps have been found but not yet saved and checked. They are an epigraphist's reading of a brick from the Chabahil stupa as inscribed in the third century BCE, and the tradition that Ashoka visited Patan about 250 BCE. Until they are saved, the valley is drawn from 500 CE.
Nepal beyond the Kathmandu valley, Ladakh, Sikkim, and Bhutan (Every step, except Nepal beyond the valley from 1600 to 1900, and Ladakh at 1850 and 1900): Gomez describes Buddhists in Ladakh, Sikkim, and Bhutan only as a visitor would find them today, and dates a Nepalese Buddhist scripture, the Svayambhu Purana, to about the fifteenth century without naming a place in Nepal; apart from that, no source found dates Buddhists in these places at the steps left blank. The Kathmandu valley is drawn from Sanderson, and Ladakh at 1850 from the 1860 Britannica's account of Tibet, which names Ladak in Western Tibet. Nepal beyond the valley from 1600 to 1900, and Ladakh at 1900, are drawn by the rule for two records a century or more apart, from Gomez's fifteenth-century and present-day Nepal, and from the 1860 Britannica and Gomez's present-day Ladakh; the fifteenth-century record is read only as the first of the two, so Nepal beyond the valley is blank at 1500.
China (1 CE): Teiser dates Buddhism's arrival to around the first century CE, most likely in the middle of the Han dynasty, without a year that fixes it to this step; the China pin appears at 250 CE.
Inner Mongolia and northern China under the Xianbi (500 CE): Atwood writes that from the fourth century the Xianbi in Inner Mongolia and north China patronized Chinese Buddhism, without naming a place in Inner Mongolia.
The Liao lands (Inner Mongolia and the northeast) (1000 CE): Atwood writes that the Kitans became avid patrons and practitioners of Chinese Buddhism under their Liao dynasty (907 to 1125), and Teiser that the Liao ruled portions of north China, but neither places them in today's regions.
Yunnan (Nanzhao) (750 CE): Kapstein calls Nanzhao, in today's Yunnan, a Buddhist kingdom in the reign of a Tibetan ruler who died in 704, between steps, and describes nothing there at this step.
The north and north-west of Ceylon (the Northern Province and Puttalam) (1850): The Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Ceylon of 1854 writes that the Hindu religion prevailed in the northern districts, that Tamil was the language of the north and north-west, and that the Moors and Malabars (its terms for the island's Muslims and Tamils) made up almost the entire population of the northern part of the island; it gives the prisoners of the northern province in the proportions of 95 Hindus to 5 Buddhists, 2 Muslims, 7 Catholics, and 1 Protestant, figures that are not of the province's people, and no other source found describes Buddhists in these districts at this step.
Hainan and Taiwan (Every step, except Hainan at 1700): No source found describes Buddhism on either island at these steps; Hainan is drawn at 1700 with the sixteen provinces of China in Gordon's geography of 1699, which take in the island by this site's reading.
Mongolia (500 CE to 1500): Atwood describes the patronage of Buddhist monks by Türk and later Mongol rulers and the initiations Mongol nobles received, writes that Buddhist influence had virtually disappeared on the plateau by the twelfth century, and places no Buddhist community there at these steps.
Kalmykia and Astrakhan (Every step before 1900): No source found describes Buddhism there before the 1897 census, which counts Buddhists in Astrakhan province, drawn at 1900; Atwood names the western Oirat Mongols only in northern Xinjiang.
Irkutsk province (1900): The 1897 census counts 11,609 Buddhists and Lamaists among the province's 514,267 people (2.3 percent), a count below 5 percent, which does not place a faith by itself. Atwood places Buddhist Buriats only in southern Siberia and Buriatia, which the map reads as the Buryatia block; no other source found places them in the province.
Stavropol province (1900): The 1897 census counts 10,398 Buddhists and Lamaists among the province's 873,301 people (1.2 percent), a count below 5 percent, which does not place a faith by itself; no other source found states that Buddhists lived in the province or places them within it.
Xinjiang (1500): Hartmann writes that Buddhism disappeared from the Turfan oasis around the end of the fifteenth century at the latest, which doesn't show whether it lasted to this step.
Hokkaido and Okinawa (Every step): The sources on Japan cited here do not describe either.
Burma beyond Sri Ksetra (500 CE and 750 CE): Swearer and Crosby date Buddhism at these steps only at Sri Ksetra and in "parts of Burma"; Swearer names the Mon centers of Pegu and Thaton without dates.
Thailand beyond Nakhon Pathom and That Phanom (750 CE and 1000 CE): Swearer dates Nakorn Sri Dhammaraja as an important center of Theravada Buddhism "by the eleventh century", some time in a century that contains no step, and names no other place in Thailand at these steps; he also writes that the town was dominated by Srivijaya from the eighth to the twelfth century, a statement about its rulers, not about a Buddhist community there. That Phanom is drawn from the Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre's record of its stupa.
Laos (750 CE to 1250): Swearer names Luang Prabang among the classical states of the eleventh to fifteenth centuries without a date before 1250, and the Lao chronicles he cites date the founding of the kingdom of Lan Chang to the fourteenth century.
Cambodia (Funan and early Angkor) (500 CE to 1000 CE): Swearer finds only some evidence of Buddhism in Funan from the fifth century, with Hinduism dominant, and royal Mahayana patronage from the early eleventh century, and Sanderson writes that Tantric Buddhism had short periods of prominence among the Khmers, without dates in the passage read.
Champa (central Vietnam) (1500 and 1600): UNESCO's entry for My Son, drawn for Buddhism from 500 CE to 1250, describes Champa's culture from the 4th to the 13th centuries, and the latest Buddhist inscription in Champa that Sanderson dates is a stele of 1092 recording the installation of two Buddhist deities; no source found describes Buddhism in Champa at these steps. From 1700 the map reads Gordon's Tonkin and Cochinchina, and Swearer's Vietnam, as today's Vietnam.
Central and southern Vietnam (outside Tonkin) (Every step before 1700, except Quang Nam from 500 CE to 1250): Before 1700 the Vietnam row is drawn with Britannica's colonial-period bounds for Tonkin, and the Champa row draws only Quang Nam, where Swearer places Buddha images and monastery foundations of the ninth century, from 500 CE to 1250; no source found dates Buddhists on the other central and southern blocks before 1700. Gordon's geography of 1699 names Cochinchina among the states of the peninsula beyond the Ganges, and the map reads his Tonkin and Cochinchina, with Swearer's Vietnam, as today's Vietnam from 1700, as the Christian layer reads Neill and Mullins's Vietnam.
Central Java (1000 CE and 1250): Swearer's evidence for Central Java ends with late-eighth-century inscriptions, and no source found describes Buddhism there at these steps; eastern Java is drawn from Sanderson.
California and the western United States (1850 and 1900): Baumann reports Chinese temples in San Francisco from 1853, and hundreds of temples across the western United States where Buddhist, Daoist, and Chinese folk traditions mingled, without naming the places beyond San Francisco or telling Buddhist practice apart from the others.

Christianity

Palestine (250 CE): No source found places a Christian community in Palestine at this step; the sources found speak of the first community in Jerusalem and of the Jerusalem patriarchate in the fifth century.
Ireland (250 CE and 500 CE): The only source found speaks of missions to the British Isles and to Britain in the second or third century and names no place in Ireland.
Germany (750 CE): The source found names one place, Geismar, where Boniface was at work in the early 720s, within 30 years of this step, and describes no area; no gazetteer entry placing Geismar has been saved yet.
Granada, Almería, and Málaga (the Nasrid kingdom) (1250): Fierro writes of the expulsion of the Christians of al-Andalus to North Africa in 1126 and that its non-Muslim communities eventually either disappeared or saw their numbers greatly diminished, and names no Christian community in the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, which fell in 1492; the rest of Spain is drawn at this step.
Scandinavia (1000 CE): The only source found dates Iceland's acceptance of the faith to around 1000, drawn at this step, and names no place on the Scandinavian mainland.
Azerbaijan beyond Nakhchivan (Every step before 1900): Moll's geography of 1701 bounds the ancient Armenia Major by the Kur and the Caspian, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Armenia gives Armenia's widest extent as reaching 49 degrees east. Moll also names Karasbag among the towns of Turcomania, under Persian rule, and calls the country around Erivan Karabag; the scan's page image shows both spellings as printed, and no saved gazetteer places Karasbag on today's blocks, so it is not read as Karabakh. Bennigsen and Bryan write that Christian communities survived in Arran and on the coastal plain south of Derbent after Islam became the dominant religion there by the end of the eighth century, and count 5,919 Udin Christians, the last survivors of the Albanian church, in northern Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan in 1979; no saved gazetteer places Arran on today's blocks, and reading the passage as a span for these steps would be a new reading, so it is not drawn. The row for historic Armenia draws Nakhchivan, which Moll names among the same towns, and the 1897 census tables for the provinces of Baku and Elisavetpol are drawn at 1900.
Upper Mesopotamia in Turkey (Diyarbakir, Mardin, Batman, Siirt, and Sirnak) (Every step before 1600 except Sirnak at 250 CE and Mardin at 500 CE, and Mardin, Batman, and Siirt at 1600): Russell records a bishop at Beth Zabde (Jeziret ibn-Omar, in the Sirnak block) by the beginning of the Sasanian period, drawn at 250 CE, and the New Catholic Encyclopedia writes that the first Chaldean patriarch took up residence at Diarbekr and died early in 1555 and names his successor, the metropolitan of Jeziret ibn-Omar, which carry the Diyarbakir and Sirnak blocks at 1600. The same encyclopedia names Bar Sauma, metropolitan of Nisibis, in the years to 484, and a school at Nisibis after 457 that came to hold some 800 students, drawn for the Mardin block at 500 CE, where GeoNames places Nusaybin (Nisibis); no other source found dates Christians on these blocks within 30 years of the other steps before 1600. Gordon's geography of 1699 describes Christian worship in Diarbeck, his Mesopotamia, drawn from 1700, and the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's figures for 1896 are drawn at 1900. The Islam layer draws these blocks from 1250 to 1600 within its sources' "Anatolia".
Artvin, Adiyaman, Gaziantep, and Kilis (Every step before 1800, and Artvin at 1900): No source found places Christians on these blocks at these steps, and the period sources' Turcomania, Diarbeck, and Natolia of 1699 and 1701 are not read as reaching them, by this site's reading; the blocks are drawn at 1800 and 1850 with Asiatic Turkey, from the Britannica's statements of 1810 and 1860, and Adiyaman, Gaziantep, and Kilis at 1900 from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's figures for 1896, which this site does not read for Artvin, read as part of the Batum territory that the 1911 article on Turkey says became Russian in 1878.
Thrace (the European part of Turkey) (Every step before 1500): No source found describes Christians there at these steps. From 1500 to 1600 the blocks are drawn as present from Quataert's and Koç's statements with Harakas's account, the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's account of the vilayet of Adrianople keeping the empire's majority off them; at 1700 as a majority from Moll's geography of 1701 (Edirne from Quataert and Moll); at 1800 as present from the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica's figure for European Turkey (1810); at 1850 as present from the Ottoman count of 1844 with the 1911 article on the vilayet of Adrianople; and at 1900 from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's articles on Turkey and Adrianople.
Backa and Srem (the Severno-Backi, Zapadno-Backi, Južno-Backi, and Sremski blocks of Serbia) (1600): Moll's geography of 1701 bounds Servia on the north by the Danube and the Save, which leaves these blocks outside it, and describes the line of the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) through Slavonia and along the Tisza; no source in hand places these blocks in the Ottoman lands or describes Christians there at this step. They are drawn at 1500 with Hungary and Slavonia, and from 1700 with the Latin West.
Persia and Mesopotamia (the Church of the East) (1500, Persia at 1600, and Iraq beyond the Ninawa block at 1600): The New Catholic Encyclopedia writes that under Timur (1379 to 1405) the church suffered a terrible persecution, that all who failed to escape to the mountains were put to the sword, and that very little is heard of these Christians until 1582, and Russell, in the Encyclopaedia Iranica, writes that after the 15th century the faith survived only precariously in Iranian lands, without naming a place. At 1600 the New Catholic Encyclopedia's meeting of 1551 at Mosul, with Gordon's account of 1699, carries only the Ninawa block, which holds Mosul; no record found for Iraq as a whole stands on both sides of that step. Mesopotamia is drawn from 1700, and Persia from 1700 from Gordon's geography of 1699 and the later Britannica articles.
Edessa (Urfa) (1250 to 1600): The New Catholic Encyclopedia's entry on Edessa, the source for the city's Christians to 1000 CE and at 1850, names a Latin metropolitan there during the Crusades and no bishop of the city after them, and writes that the Mongols destroyed the city in 1391 and the Turks rebuilt it in 1637; no source found places Christians there between the Crusades and that rebuilding. Gordon's geography of 1699 places Christians in Diarbeck, which takes in the city, drawn at 1700. The Islam layer draws this block at these steps within its sources' "Anatolia".
Yemen, eastern Arabia, Socotra, Sri Lanka, South India beyond Kerala, and the caravan cities of Central Asia (the Church of the East) (250 CE to 1000 CE, except Merv at 500 CE and Samarkand at 1000 CE): The New Catholic Encyclopedia, in its account of the church's missions under the Sassanids, writes that missionaries brought Christianity to Yemen and eastern Arabia before the Arab conquest of Persia, names Socotra, Ceylon, and South India, with crosses of the 6th and 7th centuries, and writes that "During this period there were Assyrian churches, bishops, and even metropolitans" in the caravan cities of Central Asia, including Merv, Herat, and Samarkand; the map reads the phrase as the period of the crosses, which contains no step. Russell, in the Encyclopaedia Iranica, writes that the Christian communities of Merv and Herat were already centuries old in the late 6th century, drawn for Merv at 500 CE (no gazetteer entry for Herat has been saved yet), and mentions a metropolitan at Samarkand from the early Muslim period and dates the end of Christianity there to the mid-15th century, drawn at 1000 CE and 1250; neither source gives the other places a date. Edessa and Mesopotamia are drawn from other sources.
Nubia (today's Sudan) (750 CE to 1250, and 1700): The only mention found for the early steps, in Neill's entry, is of Christians in what is now Sudan by 600. For 1700 the two period sources disagree, and neither is drawn; Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the people of Nubia professed the religion of the Abyssinians, while Gordon's of 1699 writes that the country had once been Christian but that its people, lacking pastors, had in time left Christianity for Islam or other religions.
The Caribbean islands beyond Hispaniola (1500 to 1600): The sources found speak of Spanish colonies in the Caribbean basin without naming islands.
New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island (1800 to 1850): The source found describes Acadian, Irish, and Scottish Catholics in the Maritimes without a date that falls at these steps.
The Guianas and British Honduras (1700 to 1850): The source found describes them without dates; they appear at 1900 in the row for the Americas. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes of Terra Firma, which he divides to take in Guiana, that the different Europeans living there were of the same religion as, and the scan loses the rest of the sentence, so no faith is named.
Ukraine beyond Kyiv, and Russia beyond Moscow, Novgorod, and Pskov (1250 to 1600; at 1700 Odesa, Mykolaiv, Kherson, Zaporizhzhia, Chernivtsi, Sevastopol, Orenburg, and the North Caucasus; at 1800 Orenburg, Astrakhan, Kalmykia, and the North Caucasus): The church histories found describe the faith's spread north and east only broadly, without places or dates at the steps to 1600. At 1700 the blocks are drawn from Moll's geography of 1701, whose Europe excludes the lands he places under the Turks or allied to them (Moldavia, Bessarabia, the Tartary of Oczakow, and Little Tartary) and ends at the Don, beyond which lie the North Caucasus blocks, and whose Muscovy this site does not read as reaching the steppe of Orenburg; the Crimea is drawn from Gordon's and Moll's accounts. At 1800 the blocks are drawn from the fourth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica (1810), whose proposed eastern limit of Europe, along the Ufa, Belaya, Kama, Volga, and Don, leaves these blocks outside it, by this site's reading. Every block is drawn at 1850 from the eighth edition (1855).
China (1250 to 1600): The sources found date a Franciscan archbishopric in Beijing from 1294 to the mid-fourteenth century, between steps, and place the Jesuits only from 1601.
Japan beyond Kyushu (1700 to 1900): The source found reports the hidden Christians only when missionaries returned in 1859, places their later communities on Kyushu, drawn from 1700, and describes the church elsewhere after that only broadly. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that no one had dared openly to avow the teaching of Christ in Japan since 1614, and Moll's of 1701, following Puffendorf, that the persecution there went on until not one Christian was left in Japan.
Sri Lanka (1600 and 1700): Neill and Mullins date the island's Catholic and Protestant conversions only to the Portuguese and Dutch periods, without years; 1800 and 1850 are drawn from their account of the end of the eighteenth century and the census of 1901.
Indonesia (Ambon, northern Sulawesi, and the Batak lands of Sumatra) (1850 to 1900): The source found gives no date for the Dutch missions in Ambon and northern Sulawesi, and dates the Batak mission from 1885 by people, not region.
Burma (Beyond Rangoon at 1800, beyond Martaban at 1850, and beyond the Irrawaddy delta at 1900): The source found names missions among the Karens and other peoples, not regions; the Imperial Gazetteer places the majority of Burma's Christians of 1901 in the Irrawaddy delta, drawn at 1900. The Encyclopaedia Britannica places Roman Catholics at Rangoon in its volume of 1810 and an American mission in British Martaban in its volume of 1854, and writes in 1854 that Christianity had made no progress among the Burmese.
Shewa and Narea beyond the Amhara block (Oromiya and Addis Ababa) (1250 to 1900, except Oromiya at 1700): Haile names the monastery of Dabra Libanos in Shewa (1270) and the adoptionists of Shewa (1878), and Moll's geography of 1701 names Xoa and Narea among the provinces left to the Abyssinian emperor; GeoNames places the monastery in the Amhara block, drawn from 1250, and Narea, as Limmu-Enarea, in the Oromiya block, drawn at 1700 as the Islam layer places it at 1800, and no saved gazetteer places Shewa's other towns on these blocks.
Kongo (1800 to 1900): No source found describes the church in Kongo after Moll's geography of 1701, drawn at 1700.
The Cape and South Africa (1700 to 1900): No source found yet that can be read online.
Madagascar (1850 to 1900): The one source found could not be read online; no other source found yet.
The Gold Coast (1900): No source found describes the Gold Coast at this step.
Abeokuta (1900): Walls's account of the mission among the Egba at Abeokuta gives no date for the community there after Crowther's visit to London on its behalf in 1851.
Western Australia and Queensland (1850): The source found dates their settlement only to the nineteenth century; they are drawn at 1900.
The Northern Territory of Australia (1850 to 1900): No source found mentions it.
The Pacific islands (1850 to 1900): The source found mentions missions in the South Pacific without naming islands or dates.
Abkhazia, Ajaria, Svaneti, Mingrelia, and Samtskhe-Javakheti (Meschia) (Abkhazia and Ajaria at 500 CE; Abkhazia, Racha-Lechkhumi-Kvemo Svaneti, and Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti at 1850; Samtskhe-Javakheti at every step but 1900): Toumanoff writes that Abkhazia and Lazica were evangelized in the 6th century, a century that contains no step, and no source found places Lazica on today's blocks. For 1850 he describes the church only within the Russian church, which the rows draw in the lands he places under Russia by then; he dates Russia's annexation of Suania to 1858 and Abkhazia to 1864 and the Prince of Mingrelia's abdication to 1867, and no source found places Racha or Lechkhumi within Imeretia, annexed in 1810. He does not date Ajaria's annexation; Ajaria is drawn at 1850 with Asiatic Turkey and at 1900 with Georgia, as the Batum territory that the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey says became Russian in 1878. He names Meschia among the Georgian principalities without describing its church before its acquisition from the Turks in 1878.

Hinduism

Delhi and Uttar Pradesh (the Kuru realm) (1000 BCE): Witzel names the Kuru realm as a later center of Vedic culture without dating or locating it, and his study of the Kuru state could not be read online.
Sind (Every step before 500 CE): The earliest date found is the Himalayan Academy's timeline entry on Hindu ancestors of the Romani people leaving Rajasthan, Sindh, and other areas of India about 430; Sind is drawn from 500 CE to 1600, at low confidence, from that entry and Gordon's geography of 1699, and from 1700 from the period geographies and encyclopedias.
Bengal (500 CE): Sanderson names the sixth-century king Gopacandra of Vanga, called entirely devoted to Siva in his inscription, without a year that places him within 30 years of this step.
Madhya Pradesh (250 BCE): No source found dates Hindu traditions in Madhya Pradesh at this step; the earliest found is Narayanan's archaeological evidence of Vasudeva worship in central India in the second century BCE, drawn at 1 CE.
Chhattisgarh (Every step before 1800): Sanderson writes that the Kalacuri king Yuvarajadeva I (reigned about 915 to 945) brought the Shaiva teacher Prabhavashiva to his kingdom in Chhattisgarh and founded for him the great monastery at Golagi, which he places in Rewa District, in the Madhya Pradesh block; that reign falls more than 30 years from 1000 CE. He also cites the Kharod inscription of 1181 or 1182 of Ratnadeva III, the Kalacuri of Ratnapura, which the text saved does not place. Sanderson also names the Sarabhapuriyas of Daksina Kosala among the early Vaishnava kings, in a list he closes with "in the fifth and sixth centuries", and cites a stone inscription of the Nala king Vilasatunga at Rajim of about 700, but no saved gazetteer places Daksina Kosala or Rajim, so neither is drawn. Placed in this block, the Sarabhapuriyas would draw 500 CE, if those closing words date them, and the Rajim inscription and Yuvarajadeva I's reign, two records more than a century apart, would carry 750 CE. Until a gazetteer places them, these steps stay blank and are on the follow-up list. The Encyclopaedia Britannica's accounts of India of 1810 and 1856 are drawn here at 1800 and 1850, and Moll's statement of 1701 on the religion of India is not yet drawn at 1700. Sanderson's record of Yuvarajadeva I's reign and the 1810 Britannica's account of Hindoostan, a record for a larger area that contains the block, are two records of Hindu traditions there more than a century apart, with no end recorded between; read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw Chhattisgarh at 1000 CE to 1700, at low confidence, but that reading has not yet been made here, and these steps are on the follow-up list.
The Deccan (Karnataka, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana) (250 CE, and 500 CE except Karnataka): Sanderson writes that the earlier Salankayana kings of Vengipura in Andhra, before the dynasty took up the Bhagavata faith, the devotion to Vishnu, at the end of the fourth century, were devotees of Shiva, without dating them more closely, and names Shaiva Vakataka rulers of Nandivardhana in eastern Vidarbha in the fifth century, which reaches 500 CE, but places the cities only by historical region (Andhra, eastern Vidarbha), and no saved gazetteer places Vengipura or Nandivardhana on today's blocks; Hiltebeitel's early Tantrism in the Andhra area, in the fourth to sixth centuries, to a certain extent cut across religious lines; and Sanderson names the Traikutakas of Nasik, Konkana, and Lata among the early Vaishnava kings, but no saved gazetteer places Nasik. Karnataka is drawn at 500 CE from Sanderson's note that Shaiva foundations there greatly outnumbered others from the fifth century to the fourteenth.
Kerala (250 CE): The source found for this step concerns the Nambudiri Brahmans, whose arrival, Mencher reports, most modern historians date only to a range, the first to fourth centuries CE, which contains this step, and writes that some historians date it later; Kerala is drawn from 500 CE from her account of the community from that arrival to the heyday of its system, in the twelfth to seventeenth centuries, and at 1000 CE from the copper plates of 1001 that the Encyclopaedia Judaica describes. No source found yet dates other Hindu worship in Kerala at this step.
Gujarat (500 CE and before): For 500 CE, the nearest found are the Maitraka kings of Valabhi, drawn at 750 CE; the earliest of them for whom Sanderson gives reign years is Guhasena (reigned about 553 to 569), whom he reports with the epithet devout lay Buddhist but generally, like almost all the Maitrakas, as a devotee of Shiva. Sanderson names the Maitrakas before Guhasena, from the founder Bhatarka on, without reign years, among them Dharapatta, whom he counts among the devotees of the Sun in the sixth century. Sanderson also names the Traikutakas of Nasik, Konkana, and Lata (the land in which a text he quotes places Valabhi) among the early Vaishnava kings, but no saved gazetteer places Lata.
Odisha (250 CE and before): The earliest found are the Nalas of western Orissa, whom Sanderson names among the early Vaishnava kings and dates from after about 450, drawn from 500 CE.
Assam (1250 and before, 1700, and 1800): No source found dates Hindu traditions in Assam at these steps; Hiltebeitel's early Tantrism there, in the fourth to sixth centuries, to a certain extent cut across religious lines, and Sanderson's seventh-century king of Pragjyotisa is not placed in Assam by the text saved. Gordon's geography of 1699 does not name Assam within the Mughal empire as this site reads its bounds, and the 1810 Britannica bounds Hindoostan at the lower Brahmaputra. Assam is drawn at 1500 and 1600 from Dandekar and O'Connell, at 1850 from the 1856 Britannica's account of Hindustan, which names it, and at 1900 from the Imperial Gazetteer's account of the census of 1901.
Uttarakhand (Every step before 1500): The earliest record found is the Himalayan Academy's timeline entry on Haridwar, a pilgrimage town on the Ganges, sacked by Timur in 1399, more than 30 years from any step; with Moll's geography of 1701, which names worship of the Ganges at Hardware (Haridwar, by this site's reading), it carries 1500 and 1600 as two records a century or more apart, and Moll's statement is drawn at 1700 with the Mughal lands. No source found dates Hindu traditions there before 1399. The saved part of the Imperial Gazetteer's Kumaun article names the shrines of Badrinath and Kedarnath without dates.
Nepal outside the Kathmandu valley (500 CE to 1800 (drawn from 1850)): No source found dates Hindu traditions outside the valley before the Rana rulers' caste regulations of the 1850s.
Sri Lanka outside Polonnaruwa (1000 CE to 1800, except Jaffna at 1800; the interior at 1850 (the north and the coast are drawn at 1850, and the island at 1900)): No dated source found says where on the island Hindu communities lived from 1000 CE to 1800, apart from Johnston's plan of 1806 for the Hindu capitalists of Jaffna, drawn at 1800. Gordon's geography of 1699 and the 1810 Britannica name the island's people or the Brahmins at its pearl fishery without placing Hindu communities on today's blocks. For 1850, the 1854 Britannica's statement that the Hindu religion prevailed in the northern districts is drawn there, and its statement that the Malabars, whom it ties to the worship of Shiva, were met with in great numbers on the sea-board is drawn on the maritime districts; the same article writes that the religion of the Buddha was professed by the entire population of the interior.
Java (500 CE beyond West Java, and 750 CE): Narayanan writes that several small Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms were established in the Indonesian archipelago by the fifth century, but names no place for them; Rema, Sudiana, and Suarka place early Hindu inscriptions in West Java, drawn at 500 CE. Raffles records several Javanese accounts of Aji Saka, whose arrival is generally referred to the first year of the Javan era, which he equates with 75 CE. In one Aji Saka returns home, in another a pestilence obliges him to withdraw his colony, and in a third a Brahman named Tritresta, held to be the same as Aji Saka, introduces the religion and arts of India, and his descendants rule through a list of eighteen princes to the ninth century; a later Javanese chronology puts Aji Saka's arrival only after the year 1000. Because the accounts differ on whether his colony stayed, the tradition is not drawn.
Central Java (1250 to 1900): No source found places Hindu traditions in central Java after the tenth century.
Champa (1500): Sanderson writes that Cham inscriptions recording royal piety to Shiva run to the fifteenth century, but gives no places for the later ones.
Thailand, Laos, Myanmar, and Malaysia (Every step before 1900 (Myanmar is drawn at 1900)): Narayanan names them among the lands where Hindu traditions thrived, with no dates or places a map can use.
Mauritius (1850 and 1900): The sources found describe indentured laborers from India arriving from the 1830s without saying they were Hindu.
Suriname and East Africa (1900): No source found gives Hindus there at this step.
Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, Goa, Puducherry, Chandigarh, and Daman and Diu (Every step before 1800, except Goa at 1700, and Goa, Puducherry, and Daman and Diu at 1900): No source found dates Hindu traditions in these blocks before the Britannica's accounts of India of 1810 and 1856, drawn at 1800 and 1850, except Gordon's account of 1699 of the peninsula's inland people, drawn for Goa at 1700, and two of Moll's of 1701 not yet drawn at 1700, his statement that the religion of India apart from Christianity and Islam was the Hindus', and his account of Naugracut, a kingdom of the Mughal's dominions whose chief city stood near the head of the Ravi, where fountains among the rocks at Callamacha or Jallamaka were worshipped, a place no saved gazetteer places. Jharkhand, Himachal Pradesh, and Chandigarh are drawn at 1900 from the Imperial Gazetteer's figures of 1901, which do not cover Goa, Puducherry, or Daman and Diu.
The northeastern hill states, Sikkim, Ladakh, and the islands (Every step, except Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland at 1900): No source found places Hindu communities in these blocks except the 1856 Britannica's account of Hindustan, not yet read onto them. Its Northern Hindustan, the Himalaya with its lower ranges from Peshawar and Cashmere on the west to Bootan and Assam on the east, is drawn at 1850 for Peshawar and Assam, and by this site's reading also takes in Sikkim; its eastern boundary, the ranges of hills that separate the British dominions from Burma, by the same reading leaves Meghalaya and Tripura inside. Ladakh is not read into it, since the same edition's article on Tibet names Ladak as a division of Western Tibet, and the islands are not named. Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland are drawn at 1900 with the province of Assam, from the Imperial Gazetteer's account of the census of 1901.

Islam

Arabia beyond the places drawn (Najd, al-Hasa, the Gulf coast, and Yemen beyond Sa'da, with Sana'a and Hadhramaut) (750 CE to 1600, and 1900, except the Hadramawt at 750 CE and Sana'a at 1900): The whole peninsula is drawn at 1700 from Moll's geography of 1701, at 1800 from the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810, and at 1850 from the 1853 edition, read for every faith it names. At the other steps no source found places Muslim communities in these parts beyond the Hijaz, Sa'da, and Oman, except that El-Hibri and Jones place the Ibadis' spread in the Hadramawt in the eighth century, drawn at 750 CE. For 1900, the 1911 edition's Turkey article lists the Arabs of the vilayet of Yemen as Muslim for about 1910, but no source found gives the vilayet's extent, so only Sana'a, the town GeoNames places, is drawn from it.
Sa'da (750 CE): The sources found date the Zaydi state at Sa'da to 897 and place no Muslim community there at this step; Oman is drawn from this step from El-Hibri's dating of the Ibadis' spread to the eighth and ninth centuries.
Kars, Ardahan, Artvin, and Igdir (Artvin at 1700, all four at 1900, and Igdir at 1500, 1600, 1800, and 1850): Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that Turcomania was named from the Turks who took possession of it and that Turkish was the tongue most used there, drawn at 1700 for Kars, Ardahan, and Igdir as the Christian layer bounds Turcomania through Moll's geography of 1701; Artvin, on the Black Sea slope, lies outside those bounds and outside Gordon's Natolia as this site reads it, and no source found dates a Muslim community there at 1700. The 1911 Britannica writes that Kars, Ardahan, and Batum became Russian in 1878, so its 1896 figure does not cover them; Koç's Ottoman count of 1830 takes in the province of Çıldır, in the northeast, but no saved source gives that province's extent, and no 1897 census figure for Kars province has been saved. Kars, Ardahan, and Artvin are drawn at 1500 and 1600 with Anatolia, at 1800 with Asiatic Turkey from the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810, and at 1850 from the Ottoman count of 1844; no source in hand places Igdir within the empire at those steps.
Afghanistan beyond Balkh, and Balkh after 750 CE (Every step, except Balkh at 750 CE): Akiner dates the first Sufi centers at Balkh to the eighth and ninth centuries and gives no later date there, and the Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa's Kabul and Herat entries give no dated Muslim community at a step.
The North-West Frontier (Every step before 1850): No source found dates Muslim communities there before the Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Hindustan of 1856, which counts Peshawar within Northern Hindustan, drawn at 1850, and the Imperial Gazetteer's figures used at 1900.
Baluchistan (Every step): No source found dates Muslim communities in Baluchistan at a step.
Kashmir (Every step before 1500): The earliest record found is Asani's visit of Sayyid Ali Hamadani, between 1381 and 1384, through which the Kubrawiyah order gained a foothold in Kashmir, more than 30 years from 1250 and 1500; it is drawn at 1500 and 1600 with Gordon's geography of 1699 as two records a century or more apart, at 1700 with the Mughal lands, at 1800 and 1850 with Hindostan, from the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810 and 1856, and at 1900 from the Imperial Gazetteer's figures.
Ladakh (Every step but 1850): No source found places Muslim communities in Ladakh at these steps. The 1860 Britannica's article on Tibet, which takes in Ladak and names Kashmiri Muslim merchants among Tibet's foreigners, is drawn there at 1850. At 1700, 1800, and 1900 the rows for Kashmir and India take in only the blocks that bear Kashmir's name, by this site's reading of their sources' bounds, and the Imperial Gazetteer's figure for Kashmir in 1901 does not say what area its Kashmir covers.
Uttar Pradesh (1250 to 1500): No source found dates Muslim communities there at 1250. For 1500, Asani writes that in the late fifteenth century Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur (1443 to 1505) declared himself the Mahdi and gathered followers, and the Imperial Gazetteer's article on Laharpur, in Sitapur District, writes that the Pasis gave way there in the fifteenth century to the Muslims, who were ousted about 1707, a statement about who held the town, which does not by itself place a community. No saved gazetteer places Jaunpur, so Asani's record is not drawn. Fatehpur Sikri is drawn at 1600 from UNESCO's dates for its mosque and Salim Chishti's tomb, Lucknow from 1700, and the Imperial Gazetteer's count for the United Provinces at 1900.
Gujarat (750 CE): Asani writes that, according to tradition, Arab traders settled in many seaports along India's western and southern coasts as early as the eighth century, without naming Gujarat; his tenth-century Ismaili strongholds are drawn at 1000 CE.
The Deccan (Every step before 1500, and Andhra Pradesh and Goa at 1900; Maharashtra, Goa, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana at 1500 and 1600): Asani writes that during the lifetimes of the Delhi shaykhs Nizam al-Din Awliya (1238 to 1325) and Nasir al-Din Mahmud (1276 to 1356), branches of the Chishti Sufi order were established in Daulatabad by Burhan al-Din (died 1340) and in Gulbarga by Sayyid Muhammad Gisu Daraz (1321 to 1422), records more than 30 years from 1250 and 1500 that are not yet read with Gordon's account of the peninsula of 1699 as pairs a century or more apart, and no saved gazetteer places Daulatabad or Gulbarga. He writes that Golkonda's Qutb Shahi dynasty was Shii from its foundation under Quli Qutb al-Mulk (1496 to 1543), that the kingdom of Ahmadnagar supported Twelver Shiism from the reign of Burhan I (1509 to 1553), and that Bijapur supported the Twelver Shii position from 1510 to 1534, statements about rule that do not by themselves place a community, and he names a Muslim elite along an axis from Lahore to Delhi to the Deccan without places or dates there. Bidar, Bijapur, and Gordon's peninsula are drawn in the blocks named, the whole Deccan at 1800 and 1850 with Hindostan, and Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Telangana at 1900 from the Imperial Gazetteer's figures for Bombay and Hyderabad State; the Gazetteer gives Madras's Muslims as a number without a share of its people, and its figures in hand do not cover Goa.
Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha (1700): Gordon's geography of 1699 places Muslims in the Mughal empire and, as most of the people, near the coasts of the peninsula, and Moll's of 1701 names Islam among the religions of India as a whole and names Naugracut, whose chief city stood near the head of the Ravi, among the empire's northern kingdoms; this site's reading of Gordon's bounds, drawn at this step, does not take in these blocks, Naugracut is not yet placed on today's blocks, and Moll's statement on India has not yet been read onto them.
Assam, Sikkim, India's other northeastern blocks, and the islands (Every step before 1900, except Assam at 1850): No source found places Muslim communities in these blocks before 1850. At 1700, Gordon's geography of 1699 places Muslims in the Mughal empire, which as this site reads its bounds does not take these blocks in, and Moll's of 1701 names Islam among the religions of India as a whole, a statement not yet read onto them. At 1850, the 1856 Britannica's account of Hindustan counts Northern Hindustan, the Himalaya with its lower ranges from Peshawar and Cashmere on the west to Bootan and Assam on the east, within the country, drawn for Peshawar and Assam; by this site's reading it also takes in Sikkim, and its eastern boundary, the ranges of hills that separate the British dominions from Burma, leaves Meghalaya and Tripura inside, but it is not yet read onto them, and the islands are not named. The Hindu layer reads the passage the same way. Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland are drawn at 1900 from the Imperial Gazetteer's figures for the province of Assam.
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Odisha, Puducherry, and India's northeastern and island blocks beyond the province of Assam (1900): The Imperial Gazetteer's account of the census of 1901 gives Islam 4.5 percent of the people of Chota Nagpur and 2.5 percent of Orissa (the scan reads "4I" and "2\", read here as four and a half and two and a half), under the 5 percent a count needs by itself, and no source found describes a Muslim community there at this step; it gives no Muslim figure for Rajputana, Central India, or the Central Provinces; and its figures in hand do not cover Puducherry, Manipur, Tripura, Sikkim, or the islands. The Uttarakhand block is drawn from its count for Kumaun, 7 percent Muslim.
Tamil Nadu (Every step before 1700, and 1900): Asani writes that Umaru Pulavar (died 1703) told the life of Muhammad in Tamil verse, drawn at 1700, and Johnston's letter names Muslim merchants and priests of the Coromandel coast in his inquiries of 1806 and in the letter's own day, drawn at 1800 and 1850; Asani names Arwi, a form of Tamil shaped by Arabic, without dates, and no source found dates Muslim communities in Tamil Nadu at the other steps. Kerala is drawn at every step from 750 CE, at 750 CE for the Mappila tradition of Kodungallur alone.
Badakhshan and the Pamirs (1250 to 1900): Akiner writes that Ismaili Islam spread there from the late eleventh century onwards and that most Pamiris were eventually converted, without a date near a step.
Turkestan (the town) and the Kazakh steppe (Every step before 1900; at 1900, the steppe beyond the Syr-Darya, Transcaspia, and Astrakhan provinces): Akiner names Ahmad Yasavi's mausoleum at Turkestan, built under Tamerlane, without dates near a step; the 1897 census tables for the Semirechye, Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Turgay, and Uralsk provinces have not yet been placed on today's blocks.
The Crimea (1250 and 1900): Bennigsen and Bryan date Islam's firm footing in the Crimea to the Golden Horde after Uzbek Khan (1313 to 1341), more than 60 years after 1250, and no 1897 census figure for Taurida province has been saved; the khanate is drawn from 1500 to 1800, and the grand mufti at Simferopol that the 1855 Britannica names at 1850.
Astrakhan and Sibir (western Siberia) (1500 for Astrakhan; 1500 to 1900 for Sibir): Bennigsen and Bryan name these Muslim khanates only at their conquest by Muscovy in 1556 and 1598; Astrakhan is drawn from 1600 to 1850 from its conquest and the census of 1897, two mentions a century or more apart, and at 1900 from that census. Sibir's conquest falls two years before 1600, but the source places the khanate, which it also calls Tumen, only in western Siberia, and no gazetteer entry that would place it on today's blocks has been saved; no later record of Sibir's Muslims has been saved.
Bashkortostan (Every step before 1900): No source found before the census of 1897; Bennigsen and Bryan's account of the Middle Volga does not name the Bashkirs.
The western Caucasus (Adygea, Karachay-Cherkessia, and Krasnodar) (Every step before 1850): Bennigsen and Bryan write that Islam first made inroads among the Cherkess through the Nogais in the fourteenth century, that at the end of the fifteenth century the Crimean Tatars introduced Islam among the western and eastern Cherkess tribes, and that in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the Ottomans and the Crimean Tatars kept up their efforts to introduce Islam among the remaining Christian or pagan tribes of the northwestern Caucasus, the Karachay, the Balkars, the western Cherkess, the Abazins, and the Abkhaz. They also write that the movement Mansur led, the first holy war of the Naqshbandi Sufi order against the Russians, began in 1785 in Chechnya and spread to northern Dagestan and the western Caucasus, and that Mansur was captured in 1791 at Anapa. These records name peoples and regions, as does their account of the jihad of 1824 to 1859, which the 1850 row reads onto Adygea and Karachay-Cherkessia and onto the Krasnodar block, which takes in the western Caucasus south of the Kuban river, by this site's reading, as the Christian layer reads the same account. Read onto the same three blocks, two of these records would each draw a step under this site's rules, since each falls within 30 years of it; the record of the end of the fifteenth century would draw 1500, the century's last year, and Mansur's movement of 1785 to 1791, read as a dated record of Muslims in the western Caucasus, would draw 1800. The record of the fourteenth century and that of 1824 to 1859 are two records of Muslims among the Cherkess more than a century apart, with no end recorded between, and read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw the blocks at 1500 to 1800, at low confidence. None of these readings has yet been made here, and 1500 to 1800 are on the follow-up list. No source found dates Muslims among these peoples before the fourteenth century. All three blocks are drawn at 1900 with Kuban province, 5.4 percent Muslim in the census of 1897.
Kabardino-Balkaria, Ingushetia, North Ossetia, and Chechnya (Kabardino-Balkaria before 1600; Ingushetia and North Ossetia at every step before 1900; Chechnya before 1800): Bennigsen and Bryan write that Lakh missionaries brought Islam to the Chechen after Timur's campaigns of 1385 to 1395, and that in the middle of the sixteenth century the Kabardins, the Ossets, the Balkars, the Chechen, and the Ingush were for the most part Christian or pagan, with only the upper level of their feudal aristocracy Muslim, a statement about a ruling class; Kabardia is drawn from 1600, after the Russian defeat of 1604 made it a solid Muslim bastion. They also write that it was through the Nogais, in the fourteenth century, that Islam first made inroads among the Cherkess, the Kabardins, and the Chechen; with the 1604 statement, that makes two records of Muslims among the Kabardins more than a century apart, with no end recorded between, and read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw Kabardino-Balkaria at 1500, at low confidence, but that reading has not yet been made here, and this step is on the follow-up list. They write that Chechnya was formerly only about one-half Muslim before Mansur's rule of 1785 to 1791, drawn from 1800. With the Lakh missionaries' work after Timur's campaigns, that statement makes two records of Muslims among the Chechen more than a century apart, with no end recorded between; read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw Chechnya at 1500 to 1700, at low confidence, but that reading has not yet been made here, and these steps are on the follow-up list. They write that the Ingush remained animist until the fall of Shamil in 1859, their last animist village converted to Islam in 1864. No source found dates a Muslim community in North Ossetia before the census of 1897. All four blocks are drawn at 1900 with Terek province.
Georgia beyond Ajaria (Abkhazia, Tbilisi, and the rest) (750 CE to 1900, except Kartli and Kakheti at 1700, and Ajaria before 1700): Toumanoff writes that Tiflis was regained from the Muslims in 1122, a statement about rule, and Bennigsen and Bryan write that the Ottoman advance from the end of the fifteenth century brought the gradual conversion of the Abkhaz and that efforts to introduce Islam among them went on in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, without a date or place that fixes a Muslim community at a step. Moll's geography of 1701 writes that the rest of Georgia's people, beside its Christians, followed Islam, drawn at 1700 for Kartli and Kakheti, and Ajaria is drawn from 1700 from Bennigsen and Bryan's account of the Adzhars.
Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro, and Greece, beyond the places drawn (Bulgaria at 1900, except Sofia and Plovdiv; Serbia at 1900, and the Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save at every step; Montenegro beyond Plav at 1900; Attica at 1850 and 1900; the Morea and western Greece at 1700, 1850, and 1900; Central Greece at 1850 and 1900; Mount Athos at 1500 to 1900; the other Aegean islands at 1500, 1600, 1700, 1850, and 1900; Crete at 1500 and 1600; the Ionian Islands at every step): The Ottoman registers' count for the whole Balkan peninsula (1520 to 1535) is drawn at 1500, and with Moll's geography of 1701, which places Turks in Bulgaria and Servia, at Salonica and Negropont, and at Thebes, and Gordon's of 1699, which counts Muslims among the people of the Danubian provinces, at 1600 and 1700; Koç's Ottoman count of 1830, whose Rumeli column this site reads as covering today's Bulgaria, is drawn there at 1800 and 1850; the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810, which writes that half of the Turkish state were Muslim Turks, is drawn across European Turkey at 1800, Mount Athos apart, and with the registers, as two records a century or more apart, in Montenegro at 1600 and 1700; and its 1860 article on Turkey, which counts 5,900,000 Muslims among the 16,200,000 people of European Turkey, a total that adds Servia and Montenegro, is drawn across European Turkey at 1850, Servia and Montenegro among it. Moll gives the Danube and the Save as Servia's northern border, and the registers cover the Balkan peninsula, so the Serbian blocks north of those rivers are not read into these sources; Gordon's Hungary, drawn at 1700 as today's Hungary, is not yet read onto them. No later source found places Muslims in Bulgaria beyond Sofia and Plovdiv at 1900, in Serbia at 1900, or in Montenegro beyond Plav at 1900. Attica is drawn at 1700 from Gordon's Greece, which writes that the temple of Minerva at Athens was then a mosque, though Moll writes of the town's mosques in the past tense, after the Venetian capture of 1687. The TDV entry on Greece writes that the Muslim presence in the Morea was removed when Venice took it between 1684 and 1686, gives an account of the end of the Morea's Muslims after 1827, and writes that Euboea's Muslims left after the founding of Greece. It dates Ottoman rule over Rhodes and the other Aegean islands to Süleyman's time and over Crete to 1669, after which, it writes, Islam spread rapidly on Crete, drawn from 1700; no source in hand places the Aegean islands in the registers of 1520 to 1535, or Muslims on Crete before 1669. It lists mosques built in Rhodes in a one-line index of related entries, which is not used alone, and no source found places Muslims on the other Aegean islands, on the Ionian Islands, or on Mount Athos. For 1900, the 1911 Britannica's Turkey article names Servia and Bulgaria as European Turkey's northern neighbors without a line that places today's Serbian, Montenegrin, or Bulgarian blocks inside or outside its bounds.
Hungary (Every step but 1700): Gordon's geography of 1699 names Muslims in Hungary, drawn at 1700; the Encyclopaedia Judaica dates central Hungary's incorporation in the Ottoman Empire to 1541, a statement about rule, and no source found dates Muslim communities in Hungary at the other steps.
Cyprus (Every step before 1700): No source found dates Muslim communities on Cyprus before Gordon's geography of 1699, drawn from 1700.
The sanjak of Novibazar (1900): The 1911 Britannica's Kossovo article puts the sanjak of Novibazar in northern Albania, but names no town in it that a gazetteer can place on today's blocks.
Sicily (750 CE): The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Sicily dates the beginning of Muslim settlement to a few years after the peace of 813 expired, after this site's 750 CE step; Orlandi, in the New Catholic Encyclopedia, dates the Arab conquest from 827 to 902. Sicily is drawn at 1000 CE and 1250.
Libya and Mauritania (750 CE and 1000 CE): The sources found describe Ifriqiya and the western Maghreb at these steps and name no place in Libya or Mauritania near them.
Ghana (Kumbi Saleh), Gao, and Takrur (1000 CE and 1250): Levtzion and Chande write that Muslim traders settled in the largest Sahelian states by the eleventh century and describe Ghana's Muslim town and Gao's Muslim king from al-Bakri; the nearest date they give is Ghana's expansion to Awdaghust about 1050, 50 years after 1000 CE, and for 1250 they say only that Ghana thrived until the thirteenth century.
Mali (the empire) (1250 and 1500): Levtzion and Chande date Mali's height to the fourteenth century, under Mansa Musa (1312 to 1337) and Mansa Sulayman (1341 to 1360), between steps.
Futa Toro (1700 to 1850): Levtzion and Chande date the Muslim-led state there to about 1776, 24 years before 1800, but no gazetteer entry for Futa Toro was found to place it.
Bundu and Futa Jalon (1800 to 1850): Levtzion and Chande date their Muslim-led states only to about 1700 and about 1725, 75 years or more before 1800.
Kaarta (1850 and 1900): Levtzion and Chande name Kaarta in al-Hajj Umar's state, but no gazetteer entry for Kaarta was found to place it.
Segu (1800): Levtzion and Chande report that Mungo Park saw many mosques in the Bambara capital in 1796, four years before the step, but do not name the town.
Nupe, western Bornu, and Adamawa (1850 and 1900): Levtzion and Chande name them among the lands the Sokoto campaigns of 1804 to 1810 engulfed, a statement about conquest, and give no town in Nupe or western Bornu a gazetteer can place; the GeoNames entries found for Nupe are a village in Kogi State and rivers elsewhere.
Gonja, Dagomba, Mamprusi, and Wa (northern Ghana) (Every step): Levtzion and Chande describe Muslims of Dyula and Hausa origin settled there without dates near a step.
Kanem and Bornu (1700 to 1900): No source found dates Muslim rule or communities there at these steps.
Gao (1600 to 1900): No source found dates a Muslim community at Gao after the Songhai state.
Timbuktu (1850 and 1900): The latest dated point the sources give for Timbuktu is the death of the Kunta leader Sidi al-Mukhtar in 1811.
The Horn of Africa (Zeila, Harar, and the Benadir coast) (750 CE (all three); 1250 to 1900 (the Benadir coast); 1700 to 1900 (Zeila)): The earliest dates found are Levtzion and Chande's, that Zeila had become a significant Muslim trading settlement by the end of the ninth century and that migrants from Arabia settled the Benadir coast at Merca, Mogadishu, and Barawa in the ninth and tenth centuries, and UNESCO's, that three of Harar's mosques date from the 10th century, all drawn at 1000 CE; none reaches 750 CE. Levtzion and Chande write that Somali coastal settlements developed into thriving towns, the most significant the sultanate of Mogadishu, without a date, and no source found dates Muslim communities on the Benadir coast after 1000 CE, or at Zeila after Adal's time. Zeila is drawn at 1250 from their two mentions of it a century or more apart, and Harar at 1250 from UNESCO's mosques and Adal's Harar, two mentions read the same way, at 1500 and 1600 with Adal, and from 1700 to 1900 from UNESCO's account of the town as a location for Islamic learning from the late 16th century to the 19th.
Ras-el-Feel (Abyssinia's western frontier) (1800): The Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810, following Bruce, names Ras-el-Feel with Narea and Tchelga among the frontier countries wholly inhabited by Muslims, drawn at 1800 for Narea and Tchelga; the GeoNames entries found under the name lie in Sudan and Mali, not in Abyssinia, so it is not placed.
The Swahili coast beyond Kilwa and Zanzibar (such as Mombasa and Lamu) (Every step): No source found names these towns at a step.
Sudan (the Funj and Darfur) (Every step): Levtzion and Chande's entry does not name them. For 1700 the two period sources disagree, and neither is drawn; Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the country had once been Christian but that its people, lacking pastors, had in time come to follow Islam or other religions, while Moll's of 1701 writes that the people of Nubia professed the religion of the Abyssinians.
Buganda (1900): Levtzion and Chande give only the year 1840 for Islam in Buganda, 60 years before the step.
Pasai (1250 and 1500): Johns names Pasai as the earliest Muslim sultanate, of the thirteenth century, without a nearer date.
Sumatra beyond Aceh, the Minangkabau highlands, and Palembang (Every step, except Palembang from 1800): Johns writes that Palembang grew in stature after 1511, without a date near a step; his scholar of Palembang, Abd al-Samad, who compiled a work around 1780 in Ta'if, in Arabia, and the 1909 article from Palembang on how the journal Al-manar had inspired the Muslims of the region to form associations to support Islamic schools, are drawn for Palembang at 1800 and 1900, with 1850 between them. Gordon's geography of 1699 writes that the people of the coasts of Java, Sumatra, and Borneo were for the most part Muslims and those of the inland parts followed other religions. Read as this layer reads his matching sentence on the coasts of the peninsula of India, it would draw Sumatra's blocks, each of which takes in coast, as present at 1700; that reading has not yet been made, and the step is on the follow-up list. The Minangkabau highlands are drawn from 1700.
Java (1250): Johns cites a tombstone at Leren dated 1082 and nothing nearer this step; eastern Java is drawn at 1500 from his fifteenth-century gravestones.
Malacca (1600, 1700, 1850, and 1900): Johns names no Muslim community at Malacca after the Portuguese took it in 1511; Malacca is drawn at 1800 with the Malay states, from the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810.
The Malay Peninsula beyond Malacca and Kelantan (1250 to 1700; 1850 beyond the Siamese tributary states; 1900 beyond Kelantan): Johns names an inscription at Trengganu dated between 1321 and 1380 and Malacca's dependencies before 1511, with nothing dated at 1250 to 1700; for 1900 he writes that To'Kenali (1866 to 1933) of Kelantan was representative of many scholars, including some who became famous in Patani and Cambodia at the turn of the century, a mention of the Patani blocks not yet drawn. The Malay states are drawn at 1800 from the Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810, which writes that the Arabs converted the Malays to Islam, and Siam's Malay tributary states at 1850 from its 1860 article on Siam.
Mindanao and Makassar, and Sulu before 1600 (Every step (Sulu, 1250 and 1500)): Johns names a Muslim grave near Jolo dated 1310, 60 years after 1250, and Makassar and Mindanao among the states that grew after 1511, without dates near a step; Neill and Mullins's "southern islands" of the Philippines are not named more closely.
Ciampa (1800): The Encyclopaedia Britannica of 1810 writes that many of the people of Ciampa, a small territory east of the estuaries of the Cambodia river, tributary to Cochin China, were Muslims, and that most of its people mixed Islam, the teaching of Confucius, and the worship of Gaudma, the Buddha, together; no gazetteer entry found places Ciampa.
Guangzhou (1000 CE and 1250): Chaffee dates the Muslim community of Guangzhou through an account of 851, and writes that the rebel Huang Chao's forces stormed and sacked the city in 879, that Arab authors give accounts of the killing of its foreign residents, Muslims among them, and that a tragedy of major proportions occurred, after which many foreign merchants left China and the Muslim communities there were later reconstituted. A destruction in which the source records the place's people killed is read as an end (Chaffee quotes Abu Zayd, writing about 914, that Huang Chao took the city and put its people to the sword), and the chapter saved gives no dated mention of the city's Muslims between then and the stelae of the fourteenth century and later, drawn from 1500, and reports the scholarly consensus that none of China's oldest mosques, Guangzhou's among them, predates the Song. The Hui tradition of Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas is drawn at 750 CE.
Fujian (1500, 1600, and 1800 to 1900): Dillon writes that the inscriptions of the Arab Mosque in Quanzhou, in Fujian, record its rebuilding in 1310 to 1311, and that descendants of Quanzhou's Muslims remained in Fujian, without dates at these steps. Fujian is drawn at 1700 with Gordon's China, from his statement that in some parts of China the teaching of Muhammad was followed, a record for China as a whole and so for Fujian. With the rebuilding of 1310 to 1311, that statement makes two records of Muslims in Fujian more than a century apart, with no end recorded between; read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw Fujian at 1500 and 1600, at low confidence, but that reading has not yet been made here, and these steps are on the follow-up list. No source found dates Muslims in Fujian at 1800 to 1900.
Yunnan (1250): The sources found date Muslims in Yunnan under the Ming (1368 to 1644) and in the rising of 1856 to 1873, drawn with the steps between, and nothing at this step.

Judaism

Jerusalem (250 CE and 500 CE): The Encyclopaedia Judaica's Jerusalem entry records Jews barred from the city from 135 CE except on the Ninth of Av and allowed to live there again from 438, but names no Jewish community there before 638.
Galilee (500 BCE, in the tradition's account): The Chabad.org timeline, drawn for Judah at this step, dates the exile of the last of the Ten Tribes, the northern tribes, to 3205 in the rabbinic count (556 BCE), 56 years before this step, and the Galilee entry places Galilee in the northern kingdom; no tradition source found names a community remaining in Galilee at this step, where the map draws the tradition's and historians' accounts apart. Historians' account is drawn at low confidence from Avi-Yonah's mentions of Galilee's Israelite remnant after 732 BCE and of its Jews in 104 BCE, with no end recorded between.
Jerusalem (1250): The Jerusalem entry records the community renewed after 1187, the city sacked in 1244, and only two Jewish dyers there in 1267, so no source found places a community at this step, and the sack of 1244 is read as an end between the mentions on either side.
Cyrenaica (Cyrene and Berenice) (250 BCE): The Cyrene entry dates the first Jewish settlers there to the reign of Ptolemy I (304 to 282 BCE), at least 32 years before this step, and gives no other date for its Jews before 85 BCE.
Aleppo (250 CE): The Aleppo entry writes that Jewish settlement there has been unbroken since Roman times, but its earliest dated evidence, a synagogue of the fourth century, comes at least 51 years after this step.
The Greek mainland beyond the places drawn (1850): The Greece entry records 5,000 Jews killed in the massacre in the Peloponnese when the Greek revolt broke out in 1821, the rest fleeing to Corfu, and the Patras and Naupaktos entries write that those communities ceased to exist or were destroyed in the revolt; the entries read name no community in the Peloponnese, Attica, or the rest of the mainland near this step besides those drawn, Salonika, Larissa, Epirus, Patras, Chalcis, Kastoria, and Kavalla. Larissa is drawn from the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's account of its district in 1871, and Epirus from the Ioannina entry.
Khuzestan (1250 to 1600, and 1900): The Persia entry's last dated mention of Jews in Khuzestan is Benjamin of Tudela's 12th-century figure of 7,000 Jews in Susa; the block is drawn at 1700 to 1850 with Persia, from Moll's and Gordon's geographies and the 1859 Encyclopaedia Britannica, and no source found places Jews there at 1900.
Teheran and Yezd before the steps drawn (750 CE to 1600): The Persia entry gives no dated mention of Jews in Teheran before the middle of the 19th century, or in Yezd before the emigration to the Holy Land in the 19th century; both blocks are drawn from 1700 with Persia, from Moll's and Gordon's geographies and the 1859 Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Samarkand (1600 to 1800): The Samarkand entry writes that the community was apparently destroyed when the town was captured in 1598, and next records a Jewish quarter allocated there in 1843, drawn at 1850.
Merv (750 CE to 1800, and 1900): The Bukhara entry names a Jew collecting taxes from Merv's Jewish community at the beginning of the eighth century, about 40 years or more before the 750 CE step, a disputation there in 1336, and the expulsion of the Jews from the towns of the Trans-Caspian region in 1888.
Khazaria (750 CE to 1000 CE): The Khazars entry dates the conversion of the leading Khazars to Judaism to perhaps about 740 CE and says that after 965 they scarcely remained an independent people for long, but the search found no source that locates their capital, Atil, which the entry places only on the lower Volga.
Tunis (750 CE to 1600, and 1800 to 1900): No Encyclopaedia Judaica entry on Tunisia or Tunis could be found online; the Leghorn entry's mention of a congregation formed there in 1685 supports only the 1700 step.
Kairouan (1250 to 1850): The Kairouan entry writes that when the Almohads conquered Tunisia in 1160 there is no mention of the Jews of Kairouan, and that from then until 1881 Kairouan, a holy city of Islam, remained strictly out of bounds for all non-Muslims.
Algeria (Tahert, Tlemcen, and the Berber capitals) (750 CE to 1000 CE): The Algeria entry names Rabbanite Jews in Tahert (Tiaret), Tlemcen, and other Berber capitals, where the philologist Judah ibn Quraysh lived, without a date near these steps.
Oran, Constantine, and Tlemcen (1500 to 1800, and Tlemcen at 1850): The Algeria entry names these towns among the centers of Jewish learning after 1391 and records Tlemcen's community destroyed some years after 1492 and the Jews of Oran pillaged and enslaved under Spanish occupation from 1509; its next dates are Oran's figure for 1838, 38 years after the 1800 step, the consistories of 1845, and Tlemcen's first figure, for 1881, 31 years after the 1850 step.
Tripoli (Oea) and the Nefusa mountains (500 CE to 1250): The Libya entry records a community at Oea (Tripoli) attested by Augustine in the fifth century, without a year, and Jews of the Nefusa mountains named in Jewish sources from the tenth century on, without a town.
Ethiopia (Beta Israel) (1250): The Beta Israel entry finds no reliable sources on the community before the period that began in 1270, and its first dated events, the wars of Amda Siyon (1314 to 1344), fall 64 years after this step.
Berlin (1250 and 1600): The Berlin entry first mentions Jews there in 1295, 45 years after the 1250 step, and records their expulsion "for ever" in 1571, after which only a few individual Jews appeared there for 100 years.
Moravia (with the Vysočina block) (1250 to 1900): The Prague entry, whose records of Bohemia's Jews are drawn for Bohemia from 1250 to 1900, names Moravia's Jews near the map's steps only in Maria Theresa's order of 1744 expelling the Jews from Bohemia and Moravia, 44 years after the 1700 step, and otherwise only in records of 1939 and later, 39 years or more after the 1900 step, and it names no Moravian town. Moll's geography of 1701 names no Jews in his accounts of Moravia and Silesia, and lists Iglau, the Vysočina block's chief town, among Moravia's towns.
Germany beyond the Rhineland, Frankfurt, and Berlin (1250 to 1900): The Frankfurt and Berlin entries name other German towns, such as Worms and Spandau, only in passing, without dates for their communities near these steps.
Silesia, Lubusz, and West Pomerania (western Poland) (1500 to 1900): The Poland entry records Wroclaw's community expelled before 1454 and names no community in these blocks at these steps. Gordon's statement on the Jews of Poland, drawn at 1700, is not drawn here, since Moll's geography of 1701 describes Silesia with the kingdom of Bohemia and Pomerania with Brandenburg, outside the kingdom, and no source found dates a Jewish community in these blocks at the later steps.
France beyond Paris, Troyes, Alsace, and Metz (1500 to 1900): The Paris, Troyes, Alsace, and Metz entries name other French places, such as Bordeaux, Bayonne, and Avignon, only as the homes of Jews who came to Paris, without dates for their own communities near these steps.
England (1500 and 1600): The England entry records the expulsion of 1290 and, in Elizabeth's reign (1558 to 1603), a semi-overt congregation in London and Bristol for some years, without dates.
Italy beyond Rome, Venice, Padua, Leghorn, and Pisa (1250 to 1600, and 1800 to 1900; Sicily, Sardinia, and the Bozen, Gorizia, Trieste, and Sondrio blocks at 1700): The Venice and Leghorn entries name other Italian communities only in passing, without dates near these steps. Gordon's geography of 1699, which writes that the Jews of Italy were allowed the public exercise of their religion, is drawn at 1700 for the peninsula he describes as Italy; he treats Sicily and Sardinia apart, among the islands, and names no Jews there, and his Upper Italy leaves out Tyrol, Goritz, Trieste, and the Valtellina, which Moll's geography of 1701 places in the Austrian lands and under the Grisons.
The Balkans beyond the places drawn (1500; Mount Athos at 1600 to 1900; the Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save at 1600 to 1850; and the lands outside Turkey at 1900): The records in hand for these lands as a whole are the Hungary entry's, that after the Ottomans' first, temporary conquest of Buda in 1526 congregations of Hungarian Jews formed within the important communities of the Balkans, without naming the towns, and the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, which counts Jews among the empire's people, drawn across European Turkey at 1800. Each is a record for a larger area, the two are more than a century apart, and no end is recorded between them, and this site reads such a pair as carrying the steps between, here 1600 and 1700, drawn at low confidence across the Balkan peninsula as the Islam layer bounds it, Montenegro among it, with Bosnia, wherever no row of its own is drawn at those steps. The pair does not reach 1500, which falls before the earlier record. For 1500, Koç, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on population, gives the Ottoman registers' count for the whole Balkan peninsula from 1520 to 1535, within 30 years of the step, with 4,134 Jewish households, 0.4 percent of the total. A count below 5 percent does not place a faith by itself, for every faith, so the count alone does not draw 1500; a source's own statement that the faith's people lived in the place does, with the count given in the note. The Hungary entry's account of the important communities of the Balkans in 1526, 26 years after the step, is such a statement for these lands as a whole, and this site reads it as a record for them at 1600 and 1700; read the same way at 1500, beside the count, it would draw these lands beyond the places drawn, but that reading has not yet been made here, and 1500 is on the follow-up list. The Ottoman Empire entry's account of many communities in Greece, Macedonia, and Bulgaria deported to Istanbul after 1453 names regions, not places, so it is not read as an end. The places drawn at 1500 are Istanbul, Salonika, Edirne, Skopje, Monastir, Kastoria, Valona, Arta and Ioannina, Thessaly, Thebes, Patras, the Peloponnese, Kavalla, Vidin, Belgrade, Corfu, and Chios, each from records of its own. Mount Athos, whose Orthodox monasteries, the TDV encyclopedia of Islam's entry on Greece writes, received privileges under Ottoman rule, and where no source in hand places Jews, is left out at every step from 1600 to 1900. The Serbian blocks north of the Danube and the Save lie outside the peninsula and in none of the provinces the 1810 article lists, so they are not drawn from these records at 1600 to 1850. This layer's Hungary rows, from Gordon's statement of 1699 that many Jews were to be found in Hungary and from the Hungary entry's figures from 1787 on, are drawn as today's Hungary and are not yet read onto these blocks. The Christian layer reads Moll's line of the Treaty of Carlowitz to put the Backa block with the emperor's Hungary at 1700, with the Srem block, which that line divides; read the same way, Gordon's statement would draw those blocks for Jews at 1700, as it would for Muslims, but that reading has not yet been made here, and that step is on the follow-up list. the Peloponnese at 1700 has an entry of its own. Moll's geography of 1701, which writes that Bulgaria was inhabited by Greek Christians as well as Turks and Jews, that Jews lived in the cities of Servia, and that there were many Jews in Romania, or Thrace, is drawn at 1700 within his bounds, with Gordon's of 1699, which counts Christians, Jews, and Muslims among the people of the Danubian provinces. The Encyclopaedia Britannica's articles on Turkey of 1810, 1860, and 1911 draw the Ottoman Balkans at 1800, 1850, and 1900; at 1900 the lands no longer Turkish are drawn only at the towns their sources name. The TDV entry on Ohrid writes that Ohrid's Jews were moved to Istanbul after the conquest, in the second half of the fifteenth century, before the earlier of the two records.
Kiev (the city and its province block) (1700): The Kiev entry records that Jewish settlement in Kiev was prohibited in 1654, finally so with the annexation of Kiev to Russia in 1667, and that the community was reestablished in 1793 after a break of about 150 years, so the period books' Poland is not drawn on these blocks at this step.
Kiev (1850): The Kiev entry records the Jews forced to leave the city in 1835 and allowed only as temporary visitors, lodging at two inns, from 1843 until two suburbs were opened to them in 1861, 11 years after this step.
Kiev province around the city (1800 to 1850): The Pale of Settlement entry describes the regions around Kiev as densely Jewish in 1827 without naming them.
Russia's Black Sea provinces beyond Odessa (Kherson, Yekaterinoslav, and Taurida) (1800 to 1850, except the Crimea at 1850, and Taurida at 1900): The Pale of Settlement entry records these provinces opened to Jews from 1791 and gives figures only from the census of 1897, drawn at 1900 except for Taurida, where it names no town; the 1855 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Europe places the Karaites' headquarters in the Crimea, drawn at 1850.
Surinam and Latin America (Surinam at 1900, and Latin America beyond Surinam at 1700 to 1900): No Encyclopaedia Judaica entry on Surinam could be found online. Surinam is drawn at 1700 from the Jamaica and Barbados entries, which date Jews there in 1673 and 1674, and at 1850 from the 1856 Encyclopaedia Britannica's count of the colony's Jews at the close of 1850, with 1800 between; no source found dates Jews in Surinam within 30 years of 1900. Moll's geography of 1701 names Jews in the Americas only on Barbados, drawn from 1700, and Gordon's of 1699 names none there; no source found dates Jews in the rest of Latin America at these steps.
Paris (1500 and 1600): The Paris entry finds no evidence of Jews in Paris, not even of lone individuals, in the 15th and 16th centuries, after the "definitive" expulsion of 1394; in 1611 a physician, Elijah of Montalto, was called to the royal court.
Georgia (Every step, except Ajaria at 1800 and 1850): No source found yet dates a Jewish community in Georgia at a step. The Persia entry writes that Benjamin of Tudela, in the 12th century, stressed the authority of the Jewish leadership in Babylonia over the Jewish communities as far as Georgia, an account not within 30 years of a step. Ajaria is drawn at 1800 with Turkey, from the 1810 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Turkey, which counts Georgia among the provinces of Asiatic Turkey, and at 1850 with Asiatic Turkey, as part of the Batum territory that the 1911 edition writes became Russian only in 1878.
Cyprus (Every step before 750 CE but 1 CE): The Greece entry places Jews on Cyprus in a list probably of 142 BCE, more than a century from the 250 BCE step, and quotes Philo's list of Jewish communities, which it says reflects the first century CE, naming Euboea, Cyprus, and Crete; that list is drawn for Cyprus and Crete at 1 CE. It and the Diaspora entry record that after the war in Trajan's days (115 to 117 CE) Jewish residence on the island was banned, which the Diaspora entry says for a long time put an end to Jewish settlement there; the Greece entry's next mention is of the seventh century, drawn with its later mentions from 750 CE.
The Peloponnese (1700): The Greece entry's statement that the Jews of the Peloponnesus engaged in peddling and tinsmithing covers the Turkish period, which it dates 1453 to 1821, and is drawn at 1500, 1600, and 1800; Hacısalihoğlu, in the TDV encyclopedia of Islam, writes that Venice took the Morea between 1684 and 1686 and the Ottomans retook it in 1715, so the statement is not read for 1700. The Greece entry records that when Venice invaded the Peloponnese in 1685 the Jews abandoned Patras and fled to Larissa, and that the Greek Orthodox of the Peloponnese killed Jews whom they considered allies of the Turks, without a year for the killings, and it gives no dated mention of Jews in the Peloponnese between 1685 and 1700.
Portugal (Portugal beyond Lisbon at 1800 and 1850, and beyond Lisbon and the Castelo Branco block at 1900): The Portugal entry records the forced conversion of 1497 and writes that Emanuel's reign (1495 to 1521) signaled the end of normative Jewish life in Portugal; the converts, officially called New Christians, who kept Jewish practice in secret, are drawn at 1500 and 1600 from its records of 1497 to 1527 and of the Inquisition's centuries, and at 1700 with Gordon's and Moll's geographies, at low confidence, as this site draws Japan's hidden Christians. The entry's records of the Jewish settlement renewed around 1800 (Hebrew tombstones of 1804, a decree of 1868, a synagogue opened in 1902) are of Lisbon, drawn from 1800, and the only other community it names near these steps is the hidden one found near Belmonte in 1917, drawn at 1900 in the Castelo Branco block. For the converts beyond Lisbon at 1800, the entry dates the Inquisition's centuries to its abolition in 1821, records that Pombal restored the New Christians' civil rights in acts from 1751 to 1774, and records a convert who left Lisbon in 1791 to enter the covenant of Abraham at Bordeaux and immigrants to London who in 1795 still cited flight from the Inquisition; read as the steps from 1500 to 1700 are read, these would draw the converts across Portugal at 1800, at low confidence, but that reading has not yet been made here, and the step is on the follow-up list. With the records of 1700 for Portugal as a whole, which count for each place in it, the Belmonte record makes two records of Jews in the Castelo Branco block more than a century apart, with no end recorded between; read as this site reads such pairs elsewhere, they would draw the block at 1800 and 1850, at low confidence, and these steps are on the follow-up list too.
The old Kingdom of Naples (southern Italy) (1700): The Greece entry records Jews expelled from Naples, among other lands, in the late 15th and 16th centuries, a record that names the place and so is read as an end, and no source found names Jews there again before 1700, so Gordon's statement on the Jews of Italy is not drawn there.
Hadhramaut (1850): The 1853 Encyclopaedia Britannica's article on Arabia, which places Jews across Arabia at this step, writes that the people of Hadhramaut call their land undefiled by the foot of either Jew or Christian, so the block is left out of Arabia at this step.
Arabia beyond Sana'a and the Hijaz (1900): No source found places Jews in these parts of Arabia near this step. The 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica's statement that the Jews were spread through Turkey in Europe and Asia, drawn at 1900 for the empire, is read for the vilayet of Yemen only at Sana'a, which has a row of its own, since no source in hand gives the vilayet's extent; the 1853 edition's article on Arabia, drawn at 1850, falls 47 years before this step.

Latter-day Saints

Sweden and Norway (1850): Langeland dates the first branches in Sweden (Skönabäck, in Skåne, April 24, 1852) and Norway (Risør, July 16, 1852) within 30 years of this step, but also dates the start of the mission's work in Skåne to April 1852 and the first missionary's arrival in Norway to September 1851, after the step; the one event in either country in 1850 is a single baptism at Gävle, after which the missionary was deported.
California (1850): No source found shows a settlement of church members in California at this step.
Central Mexico (1900): No source found gives a place or a count for members there at this step.
The Netherlands, Australia, and Tonga (1900): No source found gives members in these countries at this step.
Other branches of the movement (James Strang's followers, the Temple Lot church) (1850 and 1900): No source found places or dates them at these steps beyond the Reorganized Church row's blocks.

Follower counts, 1950 to 2020

From 1950 to 2000 the counts come from the World Religion Project's national figures (version 1.1), shown with the permission of the Correlates of War Project, which publishes them on its website.⁸⁷¹ The project's authors write that for past years they relied mostly on secondary data, so they could not classify religions by how people identify themselves and used other criteria. They combine census-based figures and other estimates from many sources, weighted by how reliable they judged each source, and estimate missing years from the years around them.⁸⁷²
The project's figures for a step can come from different sources than the step before, so a change between two of its steps can come from a change of source.⁸⁷² India's Christians, for example, number about 41.7 million at 1990 and about 24.1 million at 2000 in its figures, and the Hindus of Pakistan (which this site draws with today's Bangladesh to 1970) about 6.6 million at 1960 and about 1.9 million at 1970.⁸⁷¹ Each record carries the project's own rating of its reliability (high, medium, or low), shown in the tables below.⁸⁷² In Cuba, Haiti, and Japan it counts many people in two religions, so its figures there add up to more than the population.⁸⁷²⁸⁷¹
For 2010 and 2020 the counts come from Pew Research Center's estimates of people of all ages.⁸⁷³ Pew built them from more than 2,700 sources, including censuses, surveys, population registers, the World Religion Database, and government reports.⁸⁷⁴ The source changes at 2010. The two sources count in different ways, so a change between 2000 and 2010 can come from the change of source as well as from a change in the world.⁸⁷²⁸⁷⁴
One dot stands for 100,000 people, the same for every faith. A country's dots are its count divided by 100,000 and rounded, so a country with fewer than 50,000 followers of a faith shows no dot for it. That hides small communities and matters most for the smallest layer: in 2020 it leaves out about 490,000 Jews who live in countries with fewer than 50,000 Jews each, about 3 percent of the world's Jews in Pew's count.⁸⁷³ The dots are drawn in a mixed order, so no faith's dots always sit on top.
Both sources give one figure for each country. Within a country, the map spreads each faith's dots by where everyone in the country lives today, from Kontur's population map of 2023, which Kontur gives at 22 km resolution, not by where that faith's followers live.⁸⁷⁵ So where a faith's followers live mostly in one part of a country, its dots are spread over the whole country, except where a census places them (below), and for earlier steps the dots follow today's population. For a state spread over several of today's countries, such as the Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Pakistan to 1970, or Sudan, each faith's dots follow where most of the state's people live, so a community can appear to move when the state divides and its parts have figures of their own.
For the countries and steps listed here, an official census, or for the United States a survey, from within about five years of the step gives religion by region (state, province, district, or nation), and its figures first share each faith's dots among those regions; within each region the dots follow where people live. The country's total stays the World Religion Project's or Pew's figure. A faith the source does not separate follows population in that country. A region the source covers but gives no figure for a faith gets none of that faith's dots; a region the source does not cover at all gets each faith at the average rate of the regions it covers. Other countries, and other steps for these countries (India's earlier censuses, for example), follow population for now. The list:
- Australia at 2020, from figures for 2021 by state and territory.⁸⁸⁵ The census groups Buddhism, Christianity (which includes Latter-day Saints and Jehovah's Witnesses), Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism are used as printed. Jervis Bay Territory has figures of its own; the census's Other Territories also count Christmas Island, the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Norfolk Island, which the map shows apart.
- Brazil at 2010, from figures for 2010 by state.⁸⁸⁶ Christianity adds up seven of the census's groups: Católica Apostólica Romana, Católica Apostólica Brasileira, Católica Ortodoxa, Evangélicas (the table's total for Protestant and Pentecostal churches), Outras religiosidades cristãs, Testemunhas de Jeová, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, which the census lists as a group of its own. Espírita (Spiritist), Espiritualista, and Umbanda e Candomblé are not counted as Christian, nor the Novas religiões orientais as Buddhism; Budismo, Hinduísmo, Islamismo, and Judaísmo are used as printed.
- Canada at 2020, from figures for 2021 by province and territory.⁸⁸⁷ The census groups Buddhist, Christian (the table's total for Christian groups), Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim are used as printed.
- India at 2010, from figures for 2011 by state and union territory.⁸⁸⁸ The census columns Hindu, Muslim, Christian, and Buddhist are used as printed. Judaism has no column of its own, so it follows population. The printed figures for Dadra & Nagar Haveli and for Daman & Diu are added together, because the map has one region for the two.
- Indonesia at 2010, from figures for 2010 by province.⁸⁸⁹ The census columns Islam, Hindu, and Budha (Buddhist) are used as printed, and Christianity is the sum of its two columns, Kristen (Protestant) and Katolik (Catholic). Khong Hu Chu (Confucian) and other religions are not used, and the census does not list Jews, so Judaism falls back to population.
- Israel at 2020, from figures for 2024 by district.⁸⁹⁰ The table's Jews and Muslims lines are used as printed, in thousands. Christianity uses the Arab Christians line, which the table gives for five districts but not the Southern District, so the Southern District has no Christian figure and gets none of the Christian dots; non-Arab Christians are counted under "Jews and others" and not shown by district. Buddhists and Hindus are not listed, so those faiths fall back to population. The table also gives the area it calls the "Judea and Samaria Area" (Israeli localities): 505.6 thousand people, of them 495.5 thousand Jews, with no line for Muslims or Arab Christians. These figures are not placed on the map, because the site has not decided how to draw that area.
- Malaysia at 2020, from figures for 2020 by state and federal territory.⁸⁹¹ The columns Islam, Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism are used as printed. Judaism has no column of its own, so it follows population.
- Myanmar at 2010, from figures for 2014 by state and region.⁸⁹² The columns Buddhist, Christian, and Hindu are used as printed. The census did not count an estimated 1,090,000 people in Rakhine State, 69,753 in Kayin State, and 46,600 in Kachin State, and it assumes that those not counted in Rakhine are mainly of the Islamic faith, so its Islam figures leave them out and Islam follows population here. Judaism has no column of its own and also follows population. The printed figures for Nay Pyi Taw are added to those for Mandalay, because the map has one region for the two.
- Pakistan at 2020, from figures for 2023 by province and territory.⁸⁹³⁸⁹⁴ Islam uses the Muslim column and Christianity the Christian column. The census lists "Qadiani/Ahmadi" and "Scheduled Castes", as the table labels them, in columns of their own, and the table does not describe Scheduled Castes as Hindu, so Hinduism uses the Hindu Jati column alone; neither of those two columns is added to a faith. Buddhism and Judaism have no column of their own, so they follow population. The table gives no figures for Azad Jammu and Kashmir or Gilgit-Baltistan, so the map places each faith there at the average rate of the provinces and territories it covers.
- Sri Lanka at 1980, from figures for 1981 by district.⁸⁹⁵⁸⁹⁶ The columns Buddhist, Hindus, and Muslims are used as printed, and Christianity is the Catholics and Christians columns added together. Judaism has no column of its own, so it follows population. Kilinochchi became a district of its own in 1984, so the 1981 figures for Jaffna cover it too.
- Sri Lanka at 2010, from figures for 2012 by district.⁸⁹⁵ The columns Buddhist, Hindus, and Muslims are used as printed, and Christianity is the Catholics and Christians columns added together. Judaism has no column of its own, so it follows population.
- United Kingdom at 2020, from figures for 2021 and 2022 by region of England, and nation for Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland.⁸⁹⁷⁸⁹⁸⁸⁹⁹⁹⁰⁰ For England and Wales, the census groups Christian, Buddhist, Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim are used as printed. For Scotland, whose census was taken in 2022, the figures are the published percentages of its people, with Christianity the sum of Church of Scotland, Roman Catholic, and Other Christian. For Northern Ireland, Christianity is the sum of the census's five Christian groups (Catholic, Presbyterian Church in Ireland, Church of Ireland, Methodist Church in Ireland, and Other Christian), and Muslim, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jewish come from its full-detail table.
- United States at 2020, from figures for 2023 to 2024 by state.⁹⁰¹ Pew's shares of each state's adults who identify as Christian (all Christian groups, including Latter-day Saints, Catholics, Orthodox Christians, and Jehovah's Witnesses), Jewish, or Buddhist are used as printed; a state where Pew prints "<1%" for Jews (23 states) or Buddhists (18) gets none of that faith's dots. Pew gives a share of 1 percent or more for Muslims on 25 and for Hindus on 22 of its 51 pages (the 50 states and the District of Columbia), fewer than half, so those faiths follow population. The shares are survey estimates for 2023-24, with margins of error from 2.4 to 8.1 percentage points, depending on the state.
The World Religion Project counts the states of each year as they were, one row for each state, and does not say which areas each state's figures cover; which areas the map spreads them over is this site's reading. The Soviet Union, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, East and West Germany (with Berlin drawn with East Germany), North and South Vietnam, and North and South Yemen are each spread over the parts of today's map they covered. Pakistan includes today's Bangladesh to 1970, Sudan includes today's South Sudan, and Eritrea is drawn with Ethiopia until the project lists it as a state. At 1990, where the file still lists West Germany and North and South Yemen beside united Germany and Yemen, the map and the tables use the united states. The project lists no state for the West Bank or the Gaza Strip, so they have no figures of their own at these steps; it does not say whether a neighboring state's figures include their people.⁸⁷¹⁸⁷²
Hatched places have no figures at that step. The World Religion Project counts independent states, so in the early steps it has no figures for places that were then colonies, including much of Africa and parts of the Middle East and Asia, and each faith's total grows from step to step partly because new states enter the count.⁸⁷¹ Its file also has no figures for a few states at some steps, such as the Netherlands at 1950 and Indonesia at 1980. Pew covers countries and territories with at least 100,000 people in 2010 or 2020.⁸⁷³ Each step's list is below.
The Largest group view colors each country by the group with the most people there among Pew's seven groups: Buddhists, Christians, Hindus, Muslims, Jews, other religions, and the unaffiliated. For the World Religion Project, its nonreligious count stands for the unaffiliated, and its other religions are added together. The largest group is not always a majority. Where the two largest groups are within 5 percentage points of each other, the country is striped in both colors. "Other religions" adds many religions together, so where it is largest, no single other religion may be.⁸⁷³ The World Religion Project's authors write that its nonreligious and other-religion figures are residual categories in many of its sources, and that they used the other-religion figure to make each country's total match its population, so a country's largest group can change between steps when only the estimate changes. In Cuba, Haiti, and Japan, where the project counts many people in two religions, the largest group depends on that way of counting.⁸⁷²
Pew asks users to report its rounded counts, with values below 10,000 as "less than 10,000."⁸⁷³ The tables below follow that, and round the World Religion Project's figures to the nearest 10,000 as well, giving 0 where its file gives 0.

How each faith is counted

Each source counts people in the group they name or are recorded in. That is a counting rule, not a ruling on who belongs to a faith: Pew, for example, classifies someone who identifies as Christian as Christian "whether or not they hold orthodox Christian beliefs or attend worship services."⁸⁷⁴

Buddhism: Pew counts people who identify as Buddhist, mostly from censuses and surveys that ask their religion.⁸⁷⁴ It notes that this works less well in East Asia, where Buddhism is closely mixed with folk religion, so its count leaves out people who take part in Buddhist practices without formally calling themselves Buddhist.⁸⁷⁶ The World Religion Project counts many people in Japan in two religions, so its Buddhist figures there run above Pew's: about 83.7 million at 2000 in its figures, against Pew's 53.6 million at 2010.⁸⁷¹⁸⁷³
Christianity: Pew counts anyone who identifies as Christian as Christian, and its 2011 report on Christianity named Latter-day Saints among the smaller Christian groups it counts.⁸⁷⁴⁸⁷⁷ Pew's figure for China, about 25 million Christians in 2020, is based mainly on a national survey.⁸⁷³⁸⁷⁴ Pew notes that many Christians in China worship in unauthorized venues, known as underground or house churches, and may be reluctant to reveal their identity, so surveys may miss some of them.⁸⁷⁸ Egypt's government has not published its census results on religion in recent decades, so Pew projects Egypt's figures from the 2006 census, in which about 5 percent identified as Christian; Pew notes that journalists and government leaders have long reported 10 percent, and that officials of the Coptic Orthodox Church sometimes give a larger figure.⁸⁷⁴ The World Religion Project's figure for Egypt's Christians at 2000, about 8.0 million, is higher than Pew's 4.5 million at 2010.⁸⁷¹⁸⁷³
Hinduism: Pew counts people who identify as Hindu, mostly from censuses and surveys that ask their religion. For India it relies on census data; because India's 2021 census was delayed, its 2020 figures there are projections from the religious makeup in the 2011 census.⁸⁷⁴
Islam: Pew counts people who identify as Muslim, mostly from censuses and surveys that ask people their religion. For China it bases its estimate mainly on a national survey, reweighted so that the share of adults in mostly Muslim ethnic groups, chiefly the Hui and Uyghurs, matches the census. In the Gulf states, where migrants made up about half the population in 2020, it estimates the religions of migrants separately.⁸⁷⁴
Judaism: Counts of Jews depend on how Jewishness is defined, Pew notes, because sources measure religion, ethnicity, or a mix of the two. Outside Israel, Pew generally counts people who give Judaism as their religion, and in many countries it uses the demographer Sergio DellaPergola's estimates, which it calls the best source of Jewish numbers there; his core count also includes people of no religion who identify as Jewish. In Israel it uses the Ministry of Interior's register, which counts as Jews only children of Jewish mothers and people with formal conversions.⁸⁷⁹ In the United States, Pew's count by religion for 2020 was 5.7 million, while its survey of Jewish Americans, which also counted Jews of no religion, reached 7.5 million.⁸⁷⁹⁸⁸⁰
Latter-day Saints: Neither source counts Latter-day Saints separately.⁸⁷²⁸⁷³ Pew counts everyone who identifies as Christian as Christian, and its 2011 report named Latter-day Saints among the Christian groups it counts; as above, that is a counting rule, not a ruling on whether they are Christians.⁸⁷⁴⁸⁷⁷ The Latter-day Saint church counts its members of record, while Pew's surveys in the United States count the adults who say they are Latter-day Saints when asked their religion.⁸⁸¹⁸⁸²⁸⁸³ As the church explained in 2008, it creates a record when a person is baptized, and also for a child with the parents' consent.⁸⁸² Its current General Handbook counts as members of record those who have been baptized and confirmed, and some children under age 9 who have not been baptized.⁸⁸³ The church's membership figures by country are not shown yet, so the map has no Latter-day Saint count layer; the Latter-day Saints Today page gives its latest figures.

World Religion Project, 1950 to 2000

Each step lists every state with figures, named as on today's map, or by its own name where the state no longer exists (with today's areas noted where it covered more than today's country), the project's rating of each record's reliability, and the places with no figures.⁸⁷¹⁸⁷²

1950: 76 states with figures

1950, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	8,910,000	less than 10,000	40,000	0	8,960,000	Medium
Albania	0	410,000	0	800,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,220,000	Medium
Argentina	0	16,190,000	0	20,000	250,000	450,000	240,000	17,150,000	Medium
Australia	less than 10,000	7,800,000	0	20,000	40,000	30,000	280,000	8,180,000	Medium
Belgium	0	8,490,000	0	0	30,000	less than 10,000	130,000	8,640,000	Low
Bolivia	0	2,600,000	0	0	0	110,000	0	2,710,000	Medium
Brazil	80,000	49,350,000	0	0	0	2,520,000	0	51,940,000	Medium
Bulgaria	0	6,060,000	0	810,000	10,000	less than 10,000	370,000	7,250,000	Medium
Canada	110,000	12,230,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	180,000	1,090,000	130,000	13,740,000	Medium
Chile	0	5,550,000	0	0	0	540,000	0	6,090,000	Medium
China	51,930,000	1,110,000	10,000	10,410,000	less than 10,000	446,190,000	62,240,000	571,890,000	Medium
Colombia	0	10,490,000	0	0	0	850,000	0	11,330,000	Medium
Costa Rica	0	770,000	0	0	0	30,000	0	800,000	Medium
Cuba	0	5,180,000	0	0	0	4,690,000	0	5,860,000	Medium
Czechoslovakia	0	10,170,000	0	0	40,000	50,000	2,130,000	12,390,000	Medium
Denmark	0	4,230,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	4,270,000	Medium
Dominican Republic	less than 10,000	2,130,000	0	0	less than 10,000	110,000	less than 10,000	2,240,000	Medium
Ecuador	0	2,900,000	0	0	0	320,000	0	3,230,000	Medium
Egypt	0	3,280,000	0	16,780,000	80,000	320,000	0	20,460,000	Medium
El Salvador	0	1,690,000	0	0	0	170,000	0	1,860,000	Medium
Ethiopia (with today's Eritrea)	0	8,490,000	less than 10,000	5,310,000	20,000	5,760,000	0	19,570,000	Medium
Finland	0	3,890,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	110,000	4,010,000	High
France	less than 10,000	38,510,000	less than 10,000	200,000	400,000	130,000	2,490,000	41,740,000	Low
Greece	0	7,440,000	0	110,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	7,570,000	High
Guatemala	0	2,780,000	0	0	less than 10,000	190,000	0	2,970,000	High
Haiti	0	2,940,000	0	0	0	1,550,000	0	3,100,000	Medium
Honduras	0	1,400,000	0	0	0	50,000	0	1,450,000	Medium
Hungary	0	8,390,000	0	0	130,000	60,000	750,000	9,340,000	High
Iceland	0	140,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	140,000	Medium
India	2,390,000	6,490,000	285,840,000	42,720,000	10,000	20,010,000	830,000	358,290,000	Medium
Indonesia	640,000	3,640,000	1,650,000	57,210,000	0	16,290,000	120,000	79,540,000	Medium
Iran	0	100,000	0	15,450,000	30,000	700,000	0	16,280,000	Medium
Iraq	0	210,000	0	4,790,000	110,000	90,000	0	5,200,000	High
Ireland	0	2,960,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	2,970,000	High
Israel	0	30,000	0	120,000	1,100,000	less than 10,000	0	1,260,000	High
Italy	less than 10,000	45,420,000	0	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	1,630,000	47,100,000	Medium
Japan	59,850,000	680,000	less than 10,000	0	0	65,470,000	1,570,000	85,500,000	Medium
Jordan	0	70,000	0	1,160,000	0	less than 10,000	0	1,240,000	Medium
Lebanon	0	720,000	0	600,000	0	130,000	0	1,440,000	High
Liberia	0	130,000	0	100,000	0	600,000	0	820,000	Medium
Libya	0	40,000	0	950,000	0	30,000	0	1,020,000	Medium
Luxembourg	0	290,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	300,000	Medium
Mexico	0	25,660,000	0	0	20,000	1,700,000	0	27,380,000	Medium
Mongolia	60,000	less than 10,000	0	10,000	0	350,000	340,000	770,000	Medium
Myanmar	14,030,000	730,000	310,000	650,000	less than 10,000	2,090,000	20,000	17,830,000	Medium
Nepal	1,150,000	less than 10,000	5,700,000	150,000	0	860,000	less than 10,000	7,860,000	Medium
New Zealand	less than 10,000	1,860,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	30,000	1,910,000	Medium
Nicaragua	0	1,050,000	0	0	0	0	0	1,050,000	High
North Korea	380,000	190,000	0	0	0	5,220,000	3,700,000	9,490,000	Medium
North Yemen	0	0	0	3,000,000	300,000	20,000	0	3,320,000	Medium
Norway	0	3,240,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	3,270,000	Medium
Pakistan (with today's Bangladesh)	200,000	940,000	5,970,000	67,160,000	less than 10,000	350,000	less than 10,000	74,620,000	Medium
Panama	0	790,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	0	800,000	Medium
Paraguay	0	1,260,000	0	0	0	110,000	0	1,370,000	Medium
Peru	0	7,670,000	0	0	0	300,000	0	7,970,000	Medium
Philippines	20,000	18,820,000	0	830,000	less than 10,000	580,000	30,000	20,280,000	Medium
Poland	0	23,590,000	0	less than 10,000	150,000	less than 10,000	1,080,000	24,820,000	Low
Portugal	0	8,300,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	100,000	8,410,000	Low
Romania	0	15,520,000	0	180,000	140,000	less than 10,000	470,000	16,310,000	Medium
Saudi Arabia	0	0	0	3,150,000	0	60,000	0	3,200,000	Medium
South Africa	less than 10,000	8,180,000	190,000	100,000	80,000	4,740,000	20,000	13,310,000	Medium
South Korea	2,850,000	1,830,000	0	0	0	15,660,000	10,000	20,360,000	Medium
Soviet Union	750,000	61,420,000	0	26,000,000	3,910,000	1,330,000	86,670,000	180,080,000	Medium
Spain	0	27,870,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	100,000	28,010,000	Low
Sri Lanka	4,900,000	620,000	1,580,000	550,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	7,680,000	Medium
Sweden	0	6,660,000	0	0	10,000	20,000	350,000	7,050,000	Medium
Switzerland	0	4,660,000	0	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	10,000	4,690,000	Medium
Syria	0	460,000	0	2,950,000	less than 10,000	80,000	0	3,500,000	Medium
Taiwan	1,860,000	340,000	0	30,000	0	5,200,000	less than 10,000	7,430,000	Medium
Thailand	17,810,000	110,000	30,000	480,000	0	1,200,000	less than 10,000	19,640,000	Medium
Turkey	0	200,000	0	20,420,000	0	160,000	0	20,770,000	Medium
United Kingdom	less than 10,000	47,350,000	40,000	200,000	400,000	30,000	2,600,000	50,620,000	Medium
United States	0	122,990,000	0	0	6,090,000	620,000	22,570,000	152,270,000	Low
Uruguay	0	1,580,000	0	0	40,000	570,000	0	2,200,000	Medium
Venezuela	0	4,470,000	0	0	0	500,000	0	4,960,000	Medium
Yugoslavia	0	12,700,000	0	1,800,000	30,000	100,000	1,720,000	16,350,000	Medium

No figures at 1950: Algeria, American Samoa, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Austria, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Benin, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Curaçao, Cyprus, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Dominica, eastern Germany (the states of the former East Germany, with Berlin), Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gabon, Gaza Strip, Germany, Ghana, Greenland, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guam, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Ivory Coast, Jamaica, Jersey, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Lao PDR, Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Malaysia, Maldives, Mali, Malta, Martinique, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mayotte, Morocco, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, Netherlands, New Caledonia, Niger, Nigeria, northern Cyprus, Northern Mariana Islands, northern Somalia (Somaliland), Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Republic of the Congo, Reunion, Rwanda, Sabah, Sarawak, and Labuan, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint-Martin, Samoa, São Tomé and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, South Sudan, southern Vietnam (south of the 17th parallel), southern Yemen (the former South Yemen), Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, The Gambia, Timor-Leste, Togo, Tonga, Trinidad and Tobago, Tunisia, Turks and Caicos Islands, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu, Vietnam, West Bank, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

1960: 111 states with figures

1960, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	10,540,000	less than 10,000	170,000	less than 10,000	10,780,000	Low
Albania	0	450,000	0	920,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	240,000	1,610,000	Low
Argentina	0	19,620,000	0	0	400,000	590,000	0	20,620,000	Low
Australia	10,000	9,750,000	less than 10,000	20,000	50,000	30,000	410,000	10,280,000	Low
Austria	0	6,730,000	0	0	10,000	40,000	270,000	7,050,000	High
Belgium	0	8,820,000	0	0	30,000	less than 10,000	300,000	9,150,000	Low
Benin	0	340,000	0	280,000	0	1,620,000	less than 10,000	2,240,000	Low
Bolivia	0	3,170,000	0	0	0	180,000	0	3,350,000	Low
Brazil	130,000	70,940,000	0	less than 10,000	40,000	1,490,000	0	72,590,000	Low
Bulgaria	0	6,010,000	0	710,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,130,000	7,870,000	Medium
Burkina Faso	0	140,000	0	950,000	0	3,040,000	less than 10,000	4,120,000	Low
Cambodia	4,720,000	110,000	less than 10,000	160,000	0	270,000	170,000	5,430,000	Low
Cameroon	0	1,800,000	0	600,000	0	2,900,000	less than 10,000	5,300,000	Medium
Canada	780,000	16,170,000	0	0	250,000	700,000	0	17,910,000	Medium
Central African Republic	0	570,000	0	50,000	0	670,000	less than 10,000	1,300,000	Low
Chad	0	380,000	0	1,750,000	0	930,000	less than 10,000	3,060,000	Low
Chile	0	7,480,000	0	0	0	140,000	0	7,610,000	Medium
China	53,500,000	3,980,000	10,000	11,320,000	less than 10,000	338,830,000	249,850,000	657,490,000	Low
Colombia	0	15,020,000	0	0	less than 10,000	390,000	0	15,420,000	Medium
Costa Rica	0	1,200,000	0	0	0	60,000	0	1,250,000	Medium
Cuba	0	6,190,000	0	0	0	5,620,000	0	7,030,000	Medium
Cyprus	0	450,000	0	110,000	0	20,000	0	570,000	Medium
Czechoslovakia	0	10,450,000	0	0	20,000	40,000	3,140,000	13,650,000	Low
Democratic Republic of the Congo	0	11,220,000	less than 10,000	220,000	less than 10,000	2,660,000	less than 10,000	14,110,000	Low
Denmark	0	4,520,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	4,580,000	Low
Dominican Republic	0	3,150,000	0	0	0	80,000	0	3,230,000	Medium
East Germany	0	14,250,000	0	0	0	580,000	2,410,000	17,240,000	Low
Ecuador	0	4,110,000	0	0	0	330,000	0	4,440,000	Medium
Egypt	0	2,460,000	0	23,300,000	0	330,000	0	26,090,000	Medium
El Salvador	0	2,400,000	0	0	0	180,000	0	2,580,000	Medium
Ethiopia (with today's Eritrea)	0	10,230,000	less than 10,000	7,250,000	20,000	3,200,000	0	20,700,000	Low
Finland	0	4,170,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	200,000	4,430,000	Low
France	20,000	39,810,000	10,000	270,000	470,000	1,200,000	3,900,000	45,680,000	Low
Gabon	0	290,000	0	less than 10,000	0	200,000	0	490,000	Low
Ghana	0	2,980,000	0	810,000	0	2,980,000	0	6,780,000	Low
Greece	0	8,200,000	0	110,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	8,330,000	Low
Guatemala	0	3,810,000	0	0	0	160,000	0	3,960,000	Medium
Guinea	0	40,000	0	1,620,000	0	1,610,000	less than 10,000	3,270,000	Low
Haiti	0	3,250,000	0	0	0	1,900,000	0	3,800,000	Medium
Honduras	0	1,890,000	0	0	0	50,000	0	1,940,000	Medium
Hungary	0	8,770,000	0	0	100,000	60,000	1,060,000	9,980,000	Low
Iceland	0	170,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	180,000	Low
India	3,210,000	11,730,000	341,840,000	46,940,000	20,000	27,200,000	1,770,000	432,700,000	Low
Indonesia	1,000,000	7,410,000	2,000,000	73,110,000	less than 10,000	12,050,000	630,000	96,190,000	Low
Iran	0	120,000	0	20,650,000	70,000	610,000	0	21,440,000	Low
Iraq	0	210,000	0	6,060,000	less than 10,000	620,000	0	6,890,000	Low
Ireland	0	2,820,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	2,830,000	High
Israel	0	60,000	0	210,000	1,810,000	30,000	0	2,120,000	High
Italy	less than 10,000	46,480,000	0	20,000	40,000	less than 10,000	3,650,000	50,200,000	Low
Ivory Coast	0	410,000	less than 10,000	830,000	0	2,560,000	less than 10,000	3,800,000	Low
Jamaica	0	1,330,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	270,000	1,610,000	High
Japan	65,250,000	3,000,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	71,390,000	6,280,000	93,220,000	Low
Jordan	0	100,000	0	1,590,000	0	less than 10,000	0	1,700,000	Medium
Kuwait	0	10,000	0	340,000	0	10,000	0	370,000	Low
Laos	1,400,000	70,000	0	less than 10,000	0	790,000	70,000	2,340,000	Low
Lebanon	0	980,000	0	820,000	0	60,000	0	1,860,000	Medium
Liberia	0	100,000	0	90,000	0	470,000	0	670,000	Low
Libya	0	40,000	0	1,120,000	0	140,000	0	1,300,000	Medium
Luxembourg	0	310,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	310,000	Medium
Madagascar	less than 10,000	2,560,000	less than 10,000	80,000	less than 10,000	2,710,000	less than 10,000	5,370,000	Low
Malaya	500,000	400,000	570,000	3,810,000	0	4,490,000	20,000	9,790,000	Low
Mali	0	50,000	0	3,310,000	0	1,010,000	less than 10,000	4,380,000	Low
Mauritania	0	less than 10,000	0	980,000	0	less than 10,000	0	990,000	Low
Mexico	0	34,270,000	0	0	100,000	1,760,000	190,000	36,320,000	Medium
Mongolia	40,000	less than 10,000	0	40,000	0	400,000	470,000	950,000	Low
Morocco	0	350,000	0	11,080,000	160,000	50,000	0	11,640,000	Low
Myanmar	16,770,000	1,350,000	750,000	770,000	less than 10,000	2,670,000	50,000	22,360,000	Low
Nepal	1,020,000	less than 10,000	6,850,000	280,000	0	1,090,000	20,000	9,260,000	Low
Netherlands	less than 10,000	10,480,000	0	40,000	10,000	30,000	920,000	11,480,000	Medium
New Zealand	less than 10,000	2,260,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	60,000	2,370,000	Low
Nicaragua	0	1,370,000	0	0	0	40,000	0	1,410,000	Medium
Niger	0	10,000	0	2,180,000	0	840,000	less than 10,000	3,030,000	Low
Nigeria	less than 10,000	16,520,000	0	15,200,000	0	10,510,000	70,000	42,310,000	Low
North Korea	420,000	210,000	0	0	0	4,530,000	5,370,000	10,530,000	Low
North Vietnam	2,090,000	820,000	0	0	0	2,390,000	10,800,000	16,100,000	Low
North Yemen	0	0	0	4,000,000	0	40,000	0	4,040,000	Medium
Norway	0	3,430,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	110,000	3,580,000	Medium
Pakistan (with today's Bangladesh)	310,000	1,350,000	6,550,000	90,310,000	less than 10,000	200,000	10,000	98,740,000	Low
Panama	0	1,110,000	0	0	0	10,000	0	1,130,000	Medium
Paraguay	0	1,740,000	0	0	0	100,000	0	1,840,000	Medium
Peru	0	9,560,000	0	0	0	370,000	0	9,930,000	Low
Philippines	40,000	25,230,000	less than 10,000	1,080,000	less than 10,000	670,000	60,000	27,090,000	Low
Poland	0	28,170,000	0	less than 10,000	50,000	260,000	1,090,000	29,560,000	Low
Portugal	0	8,740,000	0	0	less than 10,000	50,000	150,000	8,940,000	Medium
Republic of the Congo	0	870,000	0	less than 10,000	0	110,000	less than 10,000	990,000	Low
Romania	0	17,020,000	0	210,000	140,000	40,000	990,000	18,400,000	Low
Saudi Arabia	0	0	0	4,040,000	0	40,000	0	4,080,000	Medium
Senegal	less than 10,000	150,000	0	2,610,000	0	740,000	80,000	3,580,000	Low
Somalia	0	10,000	less than 10,000	3,770,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	3,790,000	Medium
South Africa	less than 10,000	12,520,000	360,000	210,000	120,000	3,830,000	90,000	17,120,000	Low
South Korea	4,250,000	2,750,000	0	less than 10,000	0	17,950,000	60,000	25,010,000	Low
South Vietnam	8,370,000	2,130,000	0	0	0	3,180,000	2,420,000	16,100,000	Medium
Soviet Union	820,000	70,500,000	0	30,000,000	3,650,000	3,050,000	106,310,000	214,330,000	Low
Spain	0	30,030,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	400,000	30,460,000	Low
Sri Lanka	6,430,000	880,000	1,780,000	720,000	0	40,000	30,000	9,890,000	Low
Sudan (with today's South Sudan)	0	340,000	0	8,000,000	0	2,820,000	0	11,170,000	Low
Sweden	0	7,210,000	0	0	10,000	30,000	220,000	7,480,000	Low
Switzerland	0	5,310,000	0	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	30,000	5,360,000	Medium
Syria	0	360,000	0	4,130,000	10,000	less than 10,000	0	4,500,000	Medium
Taiwan	2,820,000	470,000	0	40,000	less than 10,000	7,440,000	20,000	10,790,000	Medium
Thailand	24,500,000	260,000	50,000	1,030,000	less than 10,000	740,000	60,000	26,630,000	Medium
Togo	0	350,000	0	120,000	0	970,000	less than 10,000	1,440,000	Low
Trinidad and Tobago	0	570,000	190,000	50,000	0	60,000	20,000	900,000	Medium
Tunisia	0	230,000	0	3,930,000	60,000	less than 10,000	0	4,220,000	High
Turkey	0	220,000	0	27,250,000	20,000	10,000	less than 10,000	27,510,000	Medium
United Kingdom	20,000	47,520,000	130,000	420,000	420,000	210,000	3,650,000	52,370,000	Low
United States	2,010,000	150,230,000	0	0	5,500,000	1,380,000	21,550,000	180,670,000	Medium
Uruguay	0	1,990,000	0	0	0	550,000	0	2,540,000	Medium
Venezuela	0	6,860,000	0	0	0	650,000	0	7,500,000	Medium
West Germany	0	53,520,000	0	450,000	20,000	140,000	1,300,000	55,420,000	High
Yugoslavia	0	13,990,000	0	2,200,000	20,000	less than 10,000	2,180,000	18,400,000	Low

No figures at 1960: Algeria, American Samoa, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Bahrain, Barbados, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Burundi, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Comoros, Curaçao, Djibouti, Dominica, Equatorial Guinea, Eswatini, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, Fiji, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gaza Strip, Greenland, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guam, Guinea-Bissau, Guyana, Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Kenya, Kiribati, Lesotho, Malawi, Maldives, Malta, Martinique, Mauritius, Mayotte, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Puerto Rico, Qatar, Reunion, Rwanda, Sabah, Sarawak, and Labuan, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint-Martin, Samoa, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Singapore, Solomon Islands, southern Yemen (the former South Yemen), Suriname, Tanzania, The Gambia, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu, West Bank, Western Sahara, Zambia, Zimbabwe.

1970: 138 states with figures

1970, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	110,000	13,480,000	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	13,620,000	Medium
Albania	0	590,000	0	1,030,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	510,000	2,140,000	Low
Algeria	0	110,000	0	13,610,000	less than 10,000	30,000	0	13,750,000	Medium
Argentina	10,000	23,220,000	0	less than 10,000	480,000	150,000	110,000	23,960,000	Medium
Australia	10,000	11,620,000	less than 10,000	20,000	60,000	30,000	750,000	12,510,000	Medium
Austria	less than 10,000	7,130,000	0	20,000	10,000	less than 10,000	310,000	7,470,000	High
Bahrain	0	less than 10,000	0	210,000	0	less than 10,000	0	220,000	Medium
Barbados	0	170,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	40,000	240,000	Medium
Belgium	less than 10,000	8,940,000	0	90,000	30,000	less than 10,000	580,000	9,660,000	Low
Benin	0	490,000	0	380,000	0	1,850,000	less than 10,000	2,720,000	Medium
Bolivia	less than 10,000	4,000,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	180,000	30,000	4,210,000	Medium
Botswana	0	220,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	380,000	0	600,000	Medium
Brazil	160,000	94,530,000	less than 10,000	50,000	80,000	650,000	390,000	95,850,000	Medium
Bulgaria	0	6,000,000	0	930,000	less than 10,000	20,000	1,540,000	8,490,000	Low
Burkina Faso	0	460,000	0	1,640,000	0	2,960,000	less than 10,000	5,060,000	Medium
Burundi	0	2,600,000	less than 10,000	30,000	0	910,000	less than 10,000	3,540,000	Medium
Cambodia	6,100,000	70,000	less than 10,000	170,000	0	420,000	180,000	6,940,000	Medium
Cameroon	0	2,550,000	0	1,280,000	0	2,780,000	less than 10,000	6,610,000	Medium
Canada	20,000	17,890,000	20,000	40,000	290,000	2,330,000	710,000	21,300,000	Medium
Central African Republic	0	910,000	0	90,000	0	870,000	less than 10,000	1,870,000	Medium
Chad	0	830,000	0	1,810,000	0	1,000,000	less than 10,000	3,640,000	Medium
Chile	less than 10,000	8,930,000	0	less than 10,000	20,000	240,000	320,000	9,500,000	Medium
China	55,070,000	870,000	10,000	12,240,000	less than 10,000	407,220,000	355,260,000	830,680,000	Medium
Colombia	less than 10,000	20,200,000	0	20,000	20,000	210,000	70,000	20,530,000	Low
Costa Rica	less than 10,000	1,650,000	0	0	less than 10,000	60,000	less than 10,000	1,730,000	Medium
Cuba	less than 10,000	6,380,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	5,980,000	2,100,000	8,550,000	Medium
Cyprus	0	460,000	0	110,000	less than 10,000	20,000	10,000	600,000	Low
Czechoslovakia	0	10,870,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	10,000	3,440,000	14,330,000	Medium
Democratic Republic of the Congo	0	19,440,000	less than 10,000	300,000	less than 10,000	1,890,000	less than 10,000	21,640,000	Medium
Denmark	less than 10,000	4,820,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	90,000	4,930,000	Medium
Dominican Republic	less than 10,000	3,600,000	0	0	less than 10,000	10,000	450,000	4,060,000	Medium
East Germany	0	12,340,000	0	0	0	1,070,000	3,650,000	17,060,000	Low
Ecuador	less than 10,000	5,870,000	0	0	less than 10,000	90,000	less than 10,000	5,970,000	Low
Egypt	0	3,940,000	0	28,930,000	0	180,000	0	33,050,000	Medium
El Salvador	less than 10,000	3,460,000	0	0	less than 10,000	70,000	less than 10,000	3,530,000	Medium
Equatorial Guinea	0	260,000	0	less than 10,000	0	20,000	10,000	290,000	Medium
Eswatini	0	280,000	0	less than 10,000	0	140,000	0	420,000	Medium
Ethiopia (with today's Eritrea)	0	12,800,000	less than 10,000	7,650,000	20,000	4,150,000	0	24,630,000	Medium
Fiji	0	260,000	210,000	40,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	520,000	Medium
Finland	0	4,320,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	250,000	4,610,000	Medium
France	30,000	43,480,000	20,000	1,360,000	550,000	240,000	5,110,000	50,770,000	Low
Gabon	0	360,000	0	less than 10,000	0	140,000	0	500,000	Medium
Gambia	0	10,000	less than 10,000	390,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	460,000	Medium
Ghana	less than 10,000	4,400,000	less than 10,000	1,190,000	0	3,030,000	less than 10,000	8,630,000	Medium
Greece	0	8,650,000	0	130,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	8,790,000	Medium
Guatemala	less than 10,000	4,820,000	0	0	less than 10,000	320,000	100,000	5,250,000	Low
Guinea	0	50,000	0	2,170,000	0	1,670,000	less than 10,000	3,900,000	Medium
Guyana	less than 10,000	380,000	230,000	60,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	710,000	Medium
Haiti	0	4,240,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	2,270,000	180,000	4,520,000	Medium
Honduras	less than 10,000	2,470,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	130,000	40,000	2,640,000	Medium
Hungary	less than 10,000	8,700,000	0	less than 10,000	90,000	80,000	1,460,000	10,340,000	Medium
Iceland	0	200,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	200,000	Medium
India	3,780,000	20,630,000	431,740,000	62,990,000	less than 10,000	33,050,000	2,700,000	554,910,000	Medium
Indonesia	1,100,000	12,390,000	2,310,000	94,300,000	less than 10,000	6,630,000	1,150,000	117,880,000	Medium
Iran	0	290,000	0	27,730,000	0	690,000	0	28,710,000	Medium
Iraq	0	310,000	0	9,060,000	less than 10,000	60,000	0	9,440,000	Medium
Ireland	0	2,920,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	less than 10,000	2,980,000	High
Israel	0	70,000	0	320,000	2,540,000	40,000	0	2,970,000	High
Italy	less than 10,000	47,540,000	0	40,000	40,000	20,000	6,180,000	53,820,000	Low
Ivory Coast	0	1,370,000	less than 10,000	1,270,000	0	2,870,000	less than 10,000	5,520,000	Medium
Jamaica	less than 10,000	1,450,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	170,000	180,000	1,810,000	Medium
Japan	72,380,000	3,090,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	79,210,000	10,980,000	103,400,000	Medium
Jordan	0	110,000	0	2,140,000	0	less than 10,000	50,000	2,300,000	Medium
Kenya	0	6,950,000	60,000	740,000	less than 10,000	3,490,000	less than 10,000	11,250,000	Medium
Kuwait	0	40,000	less than 10,000	670,000	0	30,000	0	750,000	Medium
Laos	1,640,000	50,000	0	less than 10,000	0	1,140,000	130,000	2,960,000	Medium
Lebanon	0	1,360,000	0	940,000	0	120,000	50,000	2,470,000	Medium
Lesotho	0	870,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	200,000	less than 10,000	1,060,000	Medium
Liberia	0	340,000	0	180,000	0	740,000	0	1,260,000	Medium
Libya	0	60,000	0	1,770,000	0	30,000	0	1,860,000	Medium
Luxembourg	0	330,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	340,000	Medium
Madagascar	less than 10,000	3,460,000	less than 10,000	120,000	less than 10,000	3,280,000	less than 10,000	6,860,000	Medium
Malawi	0	2,710,000	less than 10,000	750,000	less than 10,000	1,140,000	less than 10,000	4,610,000	Medium
Malaysia	660,000	540,000	770,000	5,200,000	0	3,210,000	20,000	10,390,000	Medium
Maldives	0	less than 10,000	0	110,000	0	less than 10,000	0	120,000	Medium
Mali	0	80,000	0	4,400,000	0	1,000,000	less than 10,000	5,480,000	Medium
Malta	0	300,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	300,000	Medium
Mauritania	0	less than 10,000	0	1,210,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,220,000	Medium
Mauritius	less than 10,000	300,000	380,000	130,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	830,000	Medium
Mexico	20,000	47,910,000	0	20,000	40,000	580,000	2,040,000	50,600,000	Medium
Mongolia	30,000	less than 10,000	0	20,000	0	460,000	740,000	1,250,000	Medium
Morocco	0	240,000	0	14,620,000	20,000	90,000	0	14,970,000	Medium
Myanmar	20,860,000	1,390,000	460,000	1,030,000	less than 10,000	3,200,000	80,000	27,030,000	Medium
Nepal	1,330,000	less than 10,000	8,350,000	310,000	0	1,290,000	40,000	11,330,000	Medium
Netherlands	less than 10,000	11,210,000	less than 10,000	60,000	30,000	450,000	1,270,000	13,030,000	Medium
New Zealand	less than 10,000	2,680,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	100,000	2,810,000	Medium
Nicaragua	less than 10,000	1,900,000	0	0	less than 10,000	130,000	20,000	2,050,000	Medium
Niger	0	20,000	0	3,400,000	0	610,000	less than 10,000	4,020,000	Medium
Nigeria	less than 10,000	21,790,000	0	22,620,000	0	10,550,000	120,000	55,070,000	Medium
North Korea	570,000	290,000	0	0	0	4,280,000	9,130,000	14,260,000	Medium
North Vietnam	2,500,000	1,020,000	less than 10,000	60,000	0	3,180,000	14,380,000	21,150,000	Medium
North Yemen	0	0	0	4,830,000	0	less than 10,000	0	4,840,000	Medium
Norway	less than 10,000	3,590,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	230,000	3,880,000	Medium
Oman	0	0	0	750,000	0	0	0	750,000	Medium
Pakistan (with today's Bangladesh)	less than 10,000	2,510,000	1,930,000	124,130,000	less than 10,000	130,000	30,000	128,720,000	Medium
Panama	less than 10,000	1,420,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	30,000	0	1,510,000	Medium
Paraguay	less than 10,000	2,230,000	0	0	less than 10,000	100,000	10,000	2,350,000	Low
Peru	10,000	13,000,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	160,000	20,000	13,190,000	Medium
Philippines	50,000	34,410,000	less than 10,000	1,620,000	less than 10,000	500,000	100,000	36,680,000	Medium
Poland	0	31,510,000	0	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	990,000	32,530,000	Medium
Portugal	0	8,720,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	320,000	9,040,000	Medium
Qatar	0	0	0	120,000	0	0	0	120,000	Medium
Republic of the Congo	0	1,160,000	0	less than 10,000	0	90,000	less than 10,000	1,260,000	Medium
Romania	0	18,520,000	0	250,000	110,000	less than 10,000	1,380,000	20,250,000	Medium
Rwanda	0	2,260,000	less than 10,000	310,000	0	1,130,000	0	3,690,000	Medium
Saudi Arabia	0	0	0	5,690,000	0	60,000	0	5,750,000	Medium
Senegal	less than 10,000	230,000	0	3,650,000	0	460,000	60,000	4,400,000	Medium
Sierra Leone	0	220,000	less than 10,000	1,040,000	0	1,400,000	0	2,660,000	Medium
Singapore	200,000	160,000	120,000	370,000	less than 10,000	1,160,000	60,000	2,080,000	Medium
Somalia	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	4,780,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	4,790,000	Medium
South Africa	less than 10,000	17,150,000	430,000	270,000	120,000	4,330,000	150,000	22,460,000	Medium
South Korea	5,450,000	5,900,000	0	less than 10,000	0	20,780,000	110,000	32,240,000	Medium
South Vietnam	9,530,000	2,570,000	0	0	0	3,480,000	2,750,000	18,330,000	Medium
South Yemen	0	0	0	1,440,000	0	0	0	1,440,000	Low
Soviet Union	880,000	77,770,000	0	30,150,000	3,380,000	5,630,000	124,950,000	242,770,000	Medium
Spain	less than 10,000	33,120,000	0	10,000	10,000	20,000	620,000	33,780,000	Medium
Sri Lanka	8,430,000	1,080,000	1,990,000	910,000	0	30,000	60,000	12,520,000	Medium
Sudan (with today's South Sudan)	0	760,000	0	9,650,000	0	3,450,000	0	13,860,000	Medium
Sweden	less than 10,000	7,610,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	10,000	400,000	8,040,000	Medium
Switzerland	less than 10,000	6,150,000	less than 10,000	20,000	20,000	less than 10,000	70,000	6,270,000	Medium
Syria	0	630,000	0	5,610,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	6,310,000	Medium
Taiwan	3,860,000	940,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	9,780,000	30,000	14,680,000	Medium
Tanzania	0	4,680,000	20,000	4,110,000	less than 10,000	4,440,000	20,000	13,270,000	Medium
Thailand	32,910,000	240,000	60,000	1,370,000	less than 10,000	1,680,000	110,000	36,370,000	Medium
Togo	0	550,000	0	270,000	0	1,150,000	less than 10,000	1,960,000	Medium
Trinidad and Tobago	less than 10,000	640,000	230,000	60,000	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	970,000	Medium
Tunisia	0	50,000	0	5,070,000	0	less than 10,000	0	5,130,000	Medium
Turkey	0	290,000	0	34,910,000	10,000	110,000	0	35,320,000	Medium
Uganda	0	6,670,000	70,000	590,000	less than 10,000	2,470,000	less than 10,000	9,810,000	Medium
United Arab Emirates	0	0	0	420,000	0	90,000	0	510,000	Medium
United Kingdom	30,000	49,290,000	220,000	630,000	450,000	310,000	4,700,000	55,630,000	Medium
United States	1,110,000	172,870,000	0	0	6,150,000	100,000	20,470,000	200,710,000	Medium
Uruguay	0	2,170,000	0	less than 10,000	50,000	580,000	0	2,810,000	Medium
Venezuela	less than 10,000	9,850,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	520,000	20,000	10,400,000	Medium
West Germany	0	57,420,000	0	970,000	60,000	450,000	1,820,000	60,710,000	High
Yugoslavia	0	15,800,000	0	2,440,000	20,000	less than 10,000	2,110,000	20,370,000	Medium
Zambia	0	2,840,000	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	1,370,000	10,000	4,240,000	Medium
Zimbabwe	0	2,770,000	less than 10,000	50,000	less than 10,000	2,470,000	less than 10,000	5,310,000	Medium

No figures at 1970: American Samoa, Andorra, Angola, Antigua and Barbuda, Aruba, Bahamas, Belize, Bhutan, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Comoros, Curaçao, Djibouti, Dominica, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gaza Strip, Greenland, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guam, Guinea-Bissau, Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Kiribati, Martinique, Mayotte, Mozambique, Namibia, Nauru, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Saint-Martin, Samoa, São Tomé and Principe, Seychelles, Solomon Islands, Suriname, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu, West Bank, Western Sahara.

1980: 157 states with figures

1980, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	16,770,000	less than 10,000	330,000	120,000	17,300,000	Medium
Albania	0	810,000	0	1,150,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	700,000	2,670,000	Medium
Algeria	0	80,000	0	18,480,000	less than 10,000	100,000	less than 10,000	18,670,000	Medium
Angola	less than 10,000	6,250,000	0	50,000	0	690,000	30,000	7,020,000	Medium
Antigua and Barbuda	0	50,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	0	60,000	Medium
Argentina	less than 10,000	26,420,000	0	20,000	560,000	1,000,000	100,000	28,090,000	Medium
Australia	10,000	12,730,000	30,000	30,000	80,000	60,000	1,760,000	14,700,000	Medium
Austria	0	6,820,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	200,000	450,000	7,560,000	High
Bahamas	0	170,000	0	0	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	210,000	Medium
Bahrain	0	10,000	less than 10,000	310,000	less than 10,000	10,000	0	330,000	Medium
Bangladesh	530,000	90,000	10,730,000	77,150,000	0	less than 10,000	180,000	88,680,000	High
Barbados	0	170,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	10,000	250,000	Medium
Belgium	less than 10,000	8,800,000	0	110,000	30,000	300,000	600,000	9,850,000	Medium
Belize	0	130,000	0	0	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	150,000	Medium
Benin	0	820,000	0	360,000	0	2,290,000	less than 10,000	3,460,000	Medium
Bhutan	850,000	less than 10,000	270,000	30,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	1,170,000	Medium
Bolivia	less than 10,000	5,290,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	10,000	5,360,000	Medium
Botswana	0	420,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	480,000	less than 10,000	890,000	Medium
Brazil	270,000	117,030,000	less than 10,000	80,000	180,000	140,000	860,000	118,560,000	Medium
Bulgaria	0	6,720,000	0	1,150,000	less than 10,000	10,000	970,000	8,860,000	Medium
Burkina Faso	0	930,000	0	2,960,000	0	3,010,000	less than 10,000	6,910,000	Medium
Burundi	0	3,360,000	less than 10,000	40,000	0	710,000	less than 10,000	4,120,000	Medium
Cambodia	5,550,000	80,000	10,000	180,000	0	480,000	190,000	6,500,000	Medium
Cameroon	less than 10,000	3,940,000	0	1,870,000	0	2,690,000	less than 10,000	8,500,000	Medium
Canada	20,000	21,550,000	50,000	180,000	310,000	450,000	1,960,000	24,520,000	Medium
Cape Verde	0	290,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	300,000	Medium
Central African Republic	0	1,400,000	0	170,000	0	730,000	10,000	2,310,000	Medium
Chad	less than 10,000	1,480,000	0	1,970,000	0	1,030,000	less than 10,000	4,480,000	Medium
Chile	less than 10,000	10,470,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	230,000	430,000	11,150,000	Medium
China	97,480,000	25,960,000	10,000	14,760,000	less than 10,000	426,250,000	434,400,000	998,880,000	Medium
Colombia	less than 10,000	24,950,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	800,000	100,000	25,890,000	Medium
Comoros	0	less than 10,000	0	380,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	380,000	Medium
Costa Rica	less than 10,000	2,210,000	0	0	less than 10,000	20,000	10,000	2,250,000	Medium
Cuba	less than 10,000	6,920,000	0	0	less than 10,000	7,060,000	2,440,000	9,720,000	Medium
Cyprus	0	480,000	0	120,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	610,000	Medium
Czechoslovakia	0	11,550,000	0	0	10,000	80,000	3,670,000	15,310,000	Medium
Democratic Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	24,670,000	less than 10,000	390,000	less than 10,000	1,310,000	less than 10,000	26,380,000	Medium
Denmark	less than 10,000	4,780,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	120,000	200,000	5,120,000	Medium
Djibouti	0	20,000	less than 10,000	330,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	360,000	Medium
Dominica	0	70,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	0	70,000	Medium
Dominican Republic	less than 10,000	4,860,000	0	0	less than 10,000	210,000	630,000	5,700,000	Medium
East Germany	0	11,000,000	0	0	less than 10,000	450,000	5,290,000	16,740,000	Medium
Ecuador	less than 10,000	7,660,000	0	0	less than 10,000	280,000	10,000	7,960,000	Medium
Egypt	0	4,250,000	0	35,390,000	less than 10,000	910,000	30,000	40,580,000	Medium
El Salvador	less than 10,000	4,390,000	0	0	less than 10,000	100,000	10,000	4,510,000	Medium
Equatorial Guinea	0	190,000	0	less than 10,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	220,000	Medium
Eswatini	0	420,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	130,000	less than 10,000	550,000	Medium
Ethiopia (with today's Eritrea)	0	17,970,000	less than 10,000	9,320,000	30,000	3,740,000	less than 10,000	31,070,000	Medium
Fiji	0	320,000	260,000	50,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	630,000	Medium
Finland	0	4,370,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	370,000	4,780,000	Medium
France	170,000	44,750,000	30,000	1,850,000	540,000	130,000	6,410,000	53,880,000	Medium
Gabon	0	530,000	0	less than 10,000	0	160,000	less than 10,000	690,000	Medium
Gambia	0	20,000	less than 10,000	510,000	0	70,000	less than 10,000	600,000	Medium
Ghana	less than 10,000	5,800,000	less than 10,000	1,800,000	0	3,200,000	10,000	10,810,000	Medium
Greece	0	9,470,000	0	130,000	less than 10,000	20,000	20,000	9,640,000	Medium
Grenada	0	90,000	0	0	0	20,000	less than 10,000	110,000	Medium
Guatemala	less than 10,000	6,080,000	0	0	less than 10,000	790,000	50,000	6,920,000	Medium
Guinea	less than 10,000	70,000	0	2,980,000	0	1,410,000	less than 10,000	4,460,000	Medium
Guinea-Bissau	0	100,000	0	250,000	0	430,000	less than 10,000	780,000	Medium
Guyana	less than 10,000	420,000	240,000	80,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	760,000	Medium
Haiti	0	5,000,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	2,780,000	60,000	5,350,000	Medium
Honduras	less than 10,000	3,480,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	200,000	10,000	3,690,000	Medium
Hungary	less than 10,000	8,420,000	0	less than 10,000	100,000	400,000	1,780,000	10,710,000	Medium
Iceland	0	220,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	230,000	Medium
India	5,630,000	34,730,000	507,770,000	80,540,000	10,000	40,540,000	4,170,000	673,390,000	Medium
Iran	0	470,000	10,000	37,690,000	50,000	1,050,000	20,000	39,290,000	Medium
Iraq	less than 10,000	710,000	0	12,440,000	less than 10,000	70,000	20,000	13,240,000	Medium
Ireland	0	3,350,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	10,000	3,400,000	High
Israel	0	90,000	0	500,000	3,280,000	less than 10,000	0	3,880,000	High
Italy	less than 10,000	48,760,000	0	320,000	40,000	80,000	7,240,000	56,430,000	Medium
Ivory Coast	less than 10,000	2,510,000	less than 10,000	1,970,000	0	3,690,000	20,000	8,190,000	Medium
Jamaica	less than 10,000	1,510,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	240,000	40,000	1,810,000	Medium
Japan	85,270,000	4,000,000	10,000	80,000	less than 10,000	89,540,000	11,740,000	116,810,000	Medium
Jordan	0	140,000	0	2,720,000	0	20,000	40,000	2,920,000	Medium
Kenya	less than 10,000	11,450,000	80,000	940,000	less than 10,000	4,190,000	less than 10,000	16,670,000	Medium
Kuwait	0	70,000	less than 10,000	1,270,000	0	20,000	0	1,370,000	Medium
Laos	1,700,000	70,000	less than 10,000	40,000	0	1,260,000	140,000	3,210,000	Medium
Lebanon	0	1,450,000	0	1,150,000	0	less than 10,000	70,000	2,670,000	Medium
Lesotho	0	1,190,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	150,000	less than 10,000	1,340,000	Medium
Liberia	0	650,000	0	340,000	0	850,000	20,000	1,860,000	Medium
Libya	less than 10,000	80,000	0	2,590,000	less than 10,000	70,000	less than 10,000	2,740,000	Medium
Luxembourg	0	350,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	360,000	Medium
Madagascar	less than 10,000	4,510,000	less than 10,000	160,000	less than 10,000	4,390,000	less than 10,000	9,070,000	Medium
Malawi	0	3,900,000	less than 10,000	900,000	less than 10,000	1,240,000	less than 10,000	6,050,000	Medium
Malaysia	890,000	910,000	1,040,000	6,920,000	0	3,970,000	30,000	13,760,000	Medium
Maldives	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	160,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	160,000	Medium
Mali	0	180,000	0	6,310,000	0	590,000	less than 10,000	7,100,000	Medium
Malta	0	320,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	320,000	Medium
Mauritania	0	less than 10,000	0	1,520,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	1,550,000	Medium
Mauritius	less than 10,000	350,000	430,000	160,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	970,000	Medium
Mexico	0	65,340,000	0	0	0	350,000	1,880,000	67,570,000	Medium
Mongolia	470,000	10,000	0	30,000	0	580,000	560,000	1,660,000	Medium
Morocco	0	150,000	0	19,140,000	20,000	20,000	less than 10,000	19,330,000	Medium
Mozambique	less than 10,000	4,700,000	less than 10,000	1,820,000	less than 10,000	5,570,000	10,000	12,100,000	Medium
Myanmar	25,230,000	2,470,000	310,000	1,270,000	less than 10,000	4,270,000	90,000	33,640,000	Medium
Nepal	1,760,000	less than 10,000	10,530,000	420,000	0	1,870,000	40,000	14,630,000	Medium
Netherlands	less than 10,000	11,420,000	40,000	140,000	30,000	420,000	2,090,000	14,140,000	Medium
New Zealand	less than 10,000	2,840,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	240,000	3,110,000	Medium
Nicaragua	less than 10,000	2,640,000	0	0	less than 10,000	130,000	less than 10,000	2,770,000	Medium
Niger	0	20,000	0	4,920,000	0	640,000	less than 10,000	5,590,000	Medium
Nigeria	less than 10,000	33,290,000	0	32,670,000	less than 10,000	5,880,000	180,000	72,020,000	Medium
North Korea	530,000	320,000	0	0	0	3,740,000	13,070,000	17,670,000	Medium
North Yemen	0	less than 10,000	0	6,350,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	6,360,000	Medium
Norway	10,000	3,660,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	370,000	4,090,000	Medium
Oman	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,090,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	1,130,000	High
Pakistan	less than 10,000	1,790,000	1,080,000	79,280,000	less than 10,000	420,000	20,000	82,580,000	Medium
Panama	less than 10,000	1,880,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	20,000	10,000	1,950,000	Medium
Papua New Guinea	less than 10,000	2,850,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	120,000	less than 10,000	2,980,000	Medium
Paraguay	less than 10,000	3,030,000	0	0	less than 10,000	70,000	10,000	3,110,000	Medium
Peru	less than 10,000	17,050,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	200,000	70,000	17,320,000	Medium
Philippines	50,000	45,070,000	less than 10,000	2,210,000	less than 10,000	830,000	150,000	48,320,000	Medium
Poland	0	34,510,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	1,060,000	35,580,000	Medium
Portugal	0	9,340,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	410,000	9,770,000	Medium
Qatar	0	10,000	less than 10,000	210,000	0	less than 10,000	0	230,000	Medium
Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	1,540,000	0	less than 10,000	0	110,000	20,000	1,670,000	Medium
Romania	0	19,800,000	0	150,000	70,000	200,000	1,990,000	22,200,000	Medium
Rwanda	0	3,600,000	less than 10,000	460,000	0	1,090,000	less than 10,000	5,160,000	Medium
Samoa	less than 10,000	150,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	160,000	Medium
Sao Tome and Principe	0	90,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	0	90,000	Low
Saudi Arabia	less than 10,000	150,000	less than 10,000	9,400,000	0	10,000	30,000	9,600,000	Medium
Senegal	less than 10,000	290,000	0	4,950,000	0	410,000	40,000	5,690,000	Medium
Seychelles	0	60,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	Medium
Sierra Leone	0	310,000	less than 10,000	1,340,000	0	1,590,000	0	3,240,000	Medium
Singapore	210,000	210,000	140,000	410,000	less than 10,000	1,210,000	100,000	2,280,000	Medium
Solomon Islands	less than 10,000	220,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	230,000	Medium
Somalia	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	6,700,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	6,710,000	Medium
South Africa	less than 10,000	22,600,000	570,000	360,000	160,000	4,590,000	900,000	29,170,000	Medium
South Korea	7,240,000	11,410,000	0	less than 10,000	0	19,280,000	190,000	38,120,000	Medium
South Yemen	0	0	0	1,900,000	0	less than 10,000	0	1,900,000	Medium
Soviet Union	720,000	73,100,000	0	30,300,000	3,120,000	10,150,000	148,100,000	265,480,000	Medium
Spain	less than 10,000	36,750,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	760,000	37,540,000	Medium
Sri Lanka	10,050,000	1,260,000	1,920,000	1,110,000	0	250,000	160,000	14,750,000	Medium
St. Lucia	0	120,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	120,000	Medium
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	0	90,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	100,000	Medium
Sudan (with today's South Sudan)	0	1,640,000	0	13,640,000	0	3,400,000	0	18,680,000	Medium
Suriname	less than 10,000	220,000	10,000	60,000	less than 10,000	50,000	less than 10,000	360,000	Medium
Sweden	10,000	7,710,000	0	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	550,000	8,310,000	Medium
Switzerland	less than 10,000	5,980,000	less than 10,000	60,000	20,000	20,000	240,000	6,320,000	High
Syria	0	1,130,000	0	7,850,000	less than 10,000	80,000	0	9,050,000	Medium
Taiwan	4,810,000	1,290,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	11,590,000	30,000	17,810,000	Medium
Tanzania	less than 10,000	7,860,000	20,000	5,870,000	less than 10,000	4,790,000	40,000	18,580,000	Medium
Thailand	42,510,000	760,000	80,000	1,930,000	less than 10,000	1,230,000	200,000	46,720,000	Medium
Togo	0	960,000	0	440,000	0	1,210,000	less than 10,000	2,620,000	Medium
Trinidad and Tobago	less than 10,000	710,000	270,000	70,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	1,080,000	Medium
Tunisia	0	10,000	0	6,410,000	50,000	100,000	less than 10,000	6,570,000	Medium
Turkey	less than 10,000	320,000	0	44,000,000	less than 10,000	100,000	20,000	44,440,000	Medium
Uganda	less than 10,000	9,900,000	100,000	1,050,000	less than 10,000	2,060,000	less than 10,000	13,120,000	Medium
United Arab Emirates	0	30,000	less than 10,000	930,000	0	50,000	less than 10,000	1,020,000	Medium
United Kingdom	120,000	48,830,000	380,000	830,000	470,000	650,000	5,040,000	56,330,000	Medium
United States	1,360,000	186,650,000	1,000,000	2,670,000	7,260,000	1,980,000	26,810,000	227,730,000	Medium
Uruguay	0	2,060,000	0	less than 10,000	30,000	560,000	260,000	2,910,000	Medium
Venezuela	less than 10,000	13,680,000	0	0	less than 10,000	190,000	40,000	13,910,000	Medium
Vietnam	4,840,000	5,180,000	20,000	60,000	0	3,810,000	39,840,000	53,730,000	Medium
West Germany	less than 10,000	57,650,000	0	1,490,000	30,000	70,000	2,300,000	61,540,000	Low
Yugoslavia	0	17,320,000	0	2,680,000	less than 10,000	60,000	2,240,000	22,300,000	Medium
Zambia	less than 10,000	4,120,000	10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	1,570,000	20,000	5,740,000	Medium
Zimbabwe	less than 10,000	4,350,000	less than 10,000	70,000	less than 10,000	2,650,000	10,000	7,100,000	Medium

No figures at 1980: American Samoa, Andorra, Aruba, British Virgin Islands, Brunei Darussalam, Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gaza Strip, Greenland, Guadeloupe, Guam, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Isle of Man, Jersey, Kiribati, Martinique, Mayotte, Namibia, Nauru, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint-Martin, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, Vanuatu, West Bank, Western Sahara.

1990: 161 states with figures

1990, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	80,000	15,300,000	less than 10,000	270,000	100,000	15,750,000	Medium
Albania	0	980,000	0	1,370,000	less than 10,000	20,000	890,000	3,260,000	Low
Algeria	0	130,000	0	24,150,000	less than 10,000	30,000	720,000	25,020,000	Medium
Angola	less than 10,000	9,310,000	0	90,000	0	560,000	60,000	10,020,000	Medium
Antigua and Barbuda	0	50,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	High
Argentina	0	29,470,000	0	0	620,000	1,690,000	750,000	32,530,000	Medium
Australia	140,000	14,060,000	50,000	160,000	80,000	190,000	2,390,000	17,070,000	Medium
Austria	0	6,430,000	0	160,000	less than 10,000	460,000	670,000	7,730,000	High
Bahamas	0	210,000	0	0	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	260,000	Medium
Bahrain	less than 10,000	30,000	10,000	430,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	500,000	Medium
Bangladesh	660,000	110,000	11,530,000	96,920,000	0	330,000	220,000	109,770,000	High
Barbados	less than 10,000	180,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	10,000	260,000	High
Belgium	20,000	8,500,000	0	320,000	30,000	30,000	1,080,000	9,970,000	Medium
Belize	less than 10,000	160,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	190,000	Medium
Benin	0	1,310,000	0	870,000	0	2,550,000	less than 10,000	4,740,000	Medium
Bhutan	1,210,000	20,000	330,000	20,000	0	70,000	less than 10,000	1,650,000	Medium
Bolivia	less than 10,000	6,270,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	250,000	40,000	6,570,000	Low
Botswana	0	700,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	590,000	less than 10,000	1,300,000	Medium
Brazil	240,000	138,030,000	less than 10,000	50,000	90,000	5,620,000	690,000	144,720,000	Medium
Brunei	20,000	30,000	less than 10,000	150,000	0	40,000	less than 10,000	250,000	Medium
Bulgaria	0	6,880,000	0	1,110,000	less than 10,000	90,000	910,000	8,990,000	Medium
Burkina Faso	0	1,340,000	0	4,380,000	0	3,230,000	50,000	9,000,000	Medium
Burundi	0	4,890,000	less than 10,000	110,000	0	450,000	less than 10,000	5,460,000	Medium
Cambodia	7,250,000	90,000	20,000	200,000	0	800,000	200,000	8,570,000	Medium
Cameroon	less than 10,000	6,040,000	0	2,440,000	0	2,980,000	30,000	11,480,000	Medium
Canada	500,000	24,350,000	160,000	250,000	350,000	550,000	1,550,000	27,700,000	Medium
Cape Verde	0	330,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	340,000	Medium
Central African Republic	0	1,850,000	0	460,000	0	600,000	20,000	2,930,000	Medium
Chad	less than 10,000	1,810,000	0	2,670,000	0	1,200,000	less than 10,000	5,690,000	Medium
Chile	less than 10,000	12,350,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	300,000	440,000	13,100,000	Medium
China	139,890,000	51,060,000	20,000	17,280,000	less than 10,000	502,520,000	444,550,000	1,155,300,000	Medium
Colombia	less than 10,000	30,980,000	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	910,000	380,000	32,300,000	Medium
Comoros	0	less than 10,000	0	510,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	520,000	Medium
Costa Rica	less than 10,000	2,620,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	60,000	120,000	2,810,000	Medium
Cuba	less than 10,000	7,680,000	20,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	6,400,000	2,580,000	10,620,000	Medium
Cyprus	0	510,000	0	130,000	less than 10,000	30,000	20,000	680,000	Medium
Czechoslovakia	0	11,080,000	0	0	0	40,000	4,540,000	15,660,000	Low
Democratic Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	33,300,000	60,000	440,000	less than 10,000	1,620,000	140,000	35,560,000	Medium
Denmark	10,000	4,780,000	less than 10,000	60,000	less than 10,000	40,000	250,000	5,140,000	Medium
Djibouti	0	20,000	less than 10,000	480,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	520,000	Medium
Dominica	less than 10,000	70,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	0	70,000	High
Dominican Republic	less than 10,000	6,040,000	0	less than 10,000	0	280,000	780,000	7,110,000	Medium
Ecuador	less than 10,000	9,870,000	0	0	less than 10,000	370,000	10,000	10,260,000	Medium
Egypt	0	7,090,000	less than 10,000	45,800,000	less than 10,000	160,000	220,000	53,270,000	Medium
El Salvador	less than 10,000	4,870,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	90,000	70,000	5,030,000	High
Equatorial Guinea	0	320,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	10,000	10,000	350,000	Medium
Eswatini	0	650,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	110,000	less than 10,000	770,000	Medium
Ethiopia (with today's Eritrea)	0	29,250,000	less than 10,000	16,540,000	10,000	5,820,000	70,000	51,690,000	Medium
Fiji	0	420,000	240,000	50,000	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	730,000	Medium
Finland	less than 10,000	4,440,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	510,000	4,990,000	High
France	310,000	44,620,000	40,000	1,810,000	580,000	220,000	9,160,000	56,740,000	Medium
Gabon	0	810,000	0	40,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	940,000	Medium
Gambia	0	40,000	less than 10,000	790,000	0	90,000	less than 10,000	920,000	Medium
Germany	80,000	62,560,000	50,000	2,850,000	50,000	470,000	13,360,000	79,400,000	Medium
Ghana	less than 10,000	8,280,000	less than 10,000	2,930,000	0	3,760,000	50,000	15,020,000	Medium
Greece	0	9,750,000	0	200,000	less than 10,000	40,000	160,000	10,160,000	Low
Grenada	0	80,000	0	0	0	20,000	0	90,000	Medium
Guatemala	less than 10,000	8,510,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	600,000	80,000	9,200,000	Medium
Guinea	less than 10,000	220,000	0	3,850,000	0	1,680,000	less than 10,000	5,760,000	Medium
Guinea-Bissau	0	120,000	0	320,000	0	520,000	10,000	960,000	Medium
Guyana	less than 10,000	300,000	250,000	60,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	100,000	720,000	High
Haiti	0	5,930,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	3,240,000	410,000	6,490,000	Medium
Honduras	less than 10,000	4,920,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	110,000	5,110,000	Medium
Hungary	less than 10,000	8,050,000	0	20,000	100,000	100,000	2,090,000	10,370,000	Medium
Iceland	0	250,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	260,000	Medium
India	5,950,000	41,730,000	622,020,000	101,000,000	less than 10,000	53,980,000	10,000,000	834,700,000	Medium
Indonesia	1,790,000	19,330,000	2,690,000	151,120,000	0	3,440,000	1,100,000	179,480,000	Medium
Iran	0	190,000	less than 10,000	53,090,000	20,000	1,140,000	50,000	54,500,000	Medium
Iraq	less than 10,000	400,000	0	17,350,000	less than 10,000	240,000	90,000	18,080,000	Medium
Ireland	0	3,340,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	110,000	70,000	3,530,000	High
Israel	0	110,000	0	810,000	3,680,000	50,000	0	4,660,000	High
Italy	less than 10,000	48,670,000	0	600,000	40,000	70,000	8,280,000	57,660,000	Medium
Ivory Coast	less than 10,000	3,440,000	less than 10,000	4,530,000	0	3,590,000	140,000	11,720,000	Low
Jamaica	less than 10,000	1,700,000	30,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	620,000	2,420,000	High
Japan	92,140,000	3,700,000	20,000	160,000	less than 10,000	94,800,000	12,300,000	123,480,000	Medium
Jordan	0	130,000	0	4,040,000	0	10,000	70,000	4,260,000	Medium
Kenya	less than 10,000	18,870,000	120,000	1,680,000	less than 10,000	3,340,000	20,000	24,030,000	Medium
Kuwait	0	100,000	20,000	1,920,000	0	90,000	less than 10,000	2,140,000	High
Laos	2,140,000	110,000	less than 10,000	20,000	0	1,800,000	130,000	4,200,000	Medium
Lebanon	0	1,200,000	0	1,360,000	0	0	0	2,560,000	Medium
Lesotho	0	1,610,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	170,000	less than 10,000	1,780,000	Medium
Liberia	0	870,000	0	430,000	0	1,070,000	40,000	2,410,000	Medium
Libya	less than 10,000	100,000	less than 10,000	4,030,000	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	4,150,000	Medium
Liechtenstein	0	30,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	Medium
Luxembourg	0	350,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	380,000	Medium
Madagascar	less than 10,000	5,900,000	less than 10,000	240,000	less than 10,000	5,020,000	30,000	11,200,000	Medium
Malawi	0	5,350,000	20,000	1,660,000	less than 10,000	1,250,000	10,000	8,290,000	Low
Malaysia	3,230,000	1,420,000	1,320,000	10,410,000	0	1,310,000	80,000	17,760,000	High
Maldives	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	210,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	220,000	Medium
Mali	0	160,000	0	7,160,000	0	830,000	less than 10,000	8,160,000	Medium
Malta	0	350,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	350,000	Medium
Mauritania	0	less than 10,000	0	1,970,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	2,000,000	Medium
Mauritius	less than 10,000	350,000	470,000	180,000	0	40,000	30,000	1,060,000	Medium
Mexico	0	80,610,000	less than 10,000	0	110,000	60,000	2,450,000	83,230,000	Medium
Mongolia	920,000	20,000	0	100,000	0	480,000	700,000	2,220,000	Medium
Morocco	0	330,000	0	23,920,000	20,000	100,000	120,000	24,490,000	Medium
Mozambique	less than 10,000	5,380,000	20,000	2,260,000	less than 10,000	6,430,000	60,000	14,150,000	Medium
Myanmar	32,050,000	2,490,000	660,000	1,080,000	less than 10,000	4,920,000	160,000	41,350,000	Medium
Namibia	0	1,250,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	90,000	10,000	1,350,000	Medium
Nepal	1,990,000	520,000	13,040,000	710,000	0	1,780,000	60,000	18,110,000	Medium
Netherlands	50,000	11,350,000	80,000	530,000	30,000	10,000	2,910,000	14,950,000	Medium
New Zealand	30,000	2,830,000	20,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	440,000	3,360,000	Medium
Nicaragua	less than 10,000	3,720,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	100,000	50,000	3,870,000	Medium
Niger	0	70,000	0	6,970,000	0	690,000	less than 10,000	7,730,000	Medium
Nigeria	less than 10,000	44,040,000	0	42,900,000	less than 10,000	9,010,000	200,000	96,150,000	Medium
North Korea	610,000	350,000	0	less than 10,000	0	3,320,000	16,090,000	20,360,000	Medium
Norway	30,000	3,820,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	340,000	4,240,000	Medium
Oman	10,000	90,000	90,000	1,710,000	0	90,000	less than 10,000	2,000,000	Medium
Pakistan	80,000	3,840,000	1,420,000	106,630,000	less than 10,000	350,000	90,000	112,400,000	Medium
Panama	10,000	2,290,000	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	20,000	30,000	2,400,000	Medium
Papua New Guinea	less than 10,000	3,510,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	170,000	less than 10,000	3,700,000	Medium
Paraguay	less than 10,000	4,140,000	0	0	less than 10,000	50,000	20,000	4,220,000	Medium
Peru	less than 10,000	21,350,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	130,000	90,000	21,570,000	Medium
Philippines	60,000	56,990,000	less than 10,000	2,830,000	less than 10,000	1,300,000	300,000	61,480,000	Medium
Poland	less than 10,000	37,050,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	1,040,000	38,120,000	Low
Portugal	50,000	9,340,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	90,000	400,000	9,900,000	Medium
Qatar	less than 10,000	30,000	10,000	420,000	0	10,000	0	490,000	Medium
Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	1,980,000	0	30,000	0	190,000	40,000	2,230,000	Medium
Romania	0	21,180,000	0	50,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,970,000	23,210,000	High
Rwanda	0	5,700,000	10,000	560,000	0	910,000	less than 10,000	7,180,000	Medium
Samoa	less than 10,000	160,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	160,000	Medium
Sao Tome and Principe	0	110,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	120,000	Medium
Saudi Arabia	50,000	500,000	160,000	14,100,000	0	50,000	0	14,870,000	Medium
Senegal	less than 10,000	400,000	0	6,410,000	0	470,000	20,000	7,300,000	Medium
Seychelles	0	70,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	Medium
Sierra Leone	0	450,000	less than 10,000	1,800,000	0	1,670,000	70,000	4,000,000	Medium
Singapore	450,000	350,000	150,000	550,000	less than 10,000	1,380,000	130,000	3,020,000	Medium
Solomon Islands	less than 10,000	300,000	0	less than 10,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	320,000	Medium
Somalia	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	8,570,000	0	40,000	less than 10,000	8,620,000	Medium
South Africa	70,000	28,860,000	660,000	440,000	110,000	5,460,000	1,460,000	37,070,000	Medium
South Korea	9,280,000	10,040,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	960,000	22,580,000	42,870,000	Low
Soviet Union	550,000	68,570,000	0	28,540,000	2,850,000	9,580,000	171,250,000	281,340,000	Low
Spain	20,000	37,460,000	0	170,000	10,000	20,000	1,270,000	38,960,000	Medium
Sri Lanka	11,650,000	1,310,000	2,210,000	1,500,000	0	70,000	250,000	16,990,000	Medium
St. Kitts and Nevis	0	40,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	High
St. Lucia	0	130,000	less than 10,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	130,000	Medium
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	0	90,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	110,000	Medium
Sudan (with today's South Sudan)	0	4,130,000	less than 10,000	17,380,000	less than 10,000	4,010,000	220,000	25,750,000	Medium
Suriname	less than 10,000	240,000	80,000	70,000	less than 10,000	20,000	0	400,000	Medium
Sweden	20,000	7,830,000	0	140,000	20,000	30,000	510,000	8,560,000	Medium
Switzerland	less than 10,000	6,060,000	less than 10,000	150,000	20,000	less than 10,000	510,000	6,750,000	High
Syria	0	970,000	0	11,000,000	less than 10,000	110,000	30,000	12,120,000	Medium
Taiwan	5,290,000	1,300,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	12,880,000	800,000	20,350,000	Medium
Tanzania	less than 10,000	12,380,000	210,000	8,050,000	less than 10,000	4,930,000	60,000	25,640,000	Medium
Thailand	48,580,000	1,660,000	180,000	2,230,000	less than 10,000	2,190,000	1,000,000	55,840,000	Medium
Togo	0	1,470,000	0	650,000	0	1,400,000	less than 10,000	3,520,000	Medium
Trinidad and Tobago	less than 10,000	760,000	320,000	80,000	less than 10,000	40,000	20,000	1,220,000	High
Tunisia	0	80,000	0	8,070,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	8,150,000	High
Turkey	30,000	400,000	0	55,450,000	20,000	80,000	110,000	56,100,000	Medium
Uganda	less than 10,000	13,560,000	130,000	1,840,000	less than 10,000	1,030,000	80,000	16,650,000	Medium
United Arab Emirates	less than 10,000	50,000	10,000	1,790,000	0	70,000	0	1,920,000	High
United Kingdom	120,000	48,500,000	380,000	1,050,000	310,000	710,000	6,500,000	57,560,000	Medium
United States	1,580,000	214,430,000	320,000	2,290,000	5,510,000	1,370,000	24,410,000	249,910,000	High
Uruguay	less than 10,000	2,260,000	0	less than 10,000	30,000	360,000	440,000	3,090,000	Medium
Vanuatu	less than 10,000	130,000	0	0	0	10,000	less than 10,000	140,000	Medium
Venezuela	less than 10,000	18,610,000	0	less than 10,000	40,000	630,000	30,000	19,330,000	Medium
Vietnam	5,960,000	4,680,000	30,000	60,000	0	7,810,000	47,690,000	66,230,000	Medium
Yemen	0	0	0	11,230,000	0	50,000	0	11,280,000	Medium
Yugoslavia	0	17,360,000	0	2,840,000	less than 10,000	50,000	3,570,000	23,820,000	Medium
Zambia	less than 10,000	6,080,000	10,000	80,000	less than 10,000	1,880,000	20,000	8,070,000	Medium
Zimbabwe	less than 10,000	6,550,000	10,000	80,000	less than 10,000	2,630,000	90,000	9,370,000	Medium

No figures at 1990: American Samoa, Andorra, Aruba, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gaza Strip, Greenland, Guadeloupe, Guam, Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Kiribati, Martinique, Mayotte, Nauru, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint-Martin, Timor-Leste, Tonga, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, West Bank, Western Sahara.

2000: 191 states with figures

2000, World Religion Project, rounded to the nearest 10,000
State	Buddhists	Christians	Hindus	Muslims	Jews	Other religions	Unaffiliated	Population	Reliability
Afghanistan	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	22,160,000	0	380,000	130,000	22,720,000	Medium
Albania	0	720,000	0	2,050,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	340,000	3,110,000	Medium
Algeria	0	less than 10,000	0	30,870,000	less than 10,000	410,000	190,000	31,470,000	Medium
Andorra	0	70,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	80,000	Medium
Angola	less than 10,000	10,840,000	0	130,000	0	1,660,000	250,000	12,880,000	Medium
Antigua and Barbuda	0	60,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	Medium
Argentina	less than 10,000	33,280,000	less than 10,000	560,000	300,000	1,440,000	1,450,000	37,030,000	High
Armenia	0	3,420,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	60,000	3,520,000	High
Australia	360,000	14,580,000	110,000	310,000	90,000	270,000	3,160,000	18,890,000	High
Austria	0	6,450,000	0	350,000	less than 10,000	430,000	980,000	8,210,000	High
Azerbaijan	0	240,000	0	6,960,000	10,000	70,000	460,000	7,730,000	High
Bahamas	0	300,000	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	310,000	Medium
Bahrain	0	50,000	0	560,000	0	less than 10,000	0	620,000	High
Bangladesh	650,000	80,000	12,010,000	115,720,000	0	590,000	100,000	129,160,000	High
Barbados	less than 10,000	190,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	60,000	270,000	High
Belarus	less than 10,000	5,990,000	0	20,000	30,000	less than 10,000	4,200,000	10,240,000	Low
Belgium	20,000	7,910,000	0	350,000	40,000	320,000	1,520,000	10,160,000	Medium
Belize	0	190,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	30,000	20,000	240,000	Medium
Benin	0	2,640,000	0	1,510,000	0	1,830,000	130,000	6,100,000	High
Bhutan	1,760,000	20,000	250,000	20,000	0	70,000	less than 10,000	2,120,000	Low
Bolivia	less than 10,000	7,840,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	270,000	210,000	8,330,000	Medium
Bosnia and Herzegovina	0	1,990,000	0	1,590,000	less than 10,000	90,000	300,000	3,970,000	Medium
Botswana	less than 10,000	870,000	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	690,000	20,000	1,620,000	Medium
Brazil	320,000	146,450,000	less than 10,000	90,000	90,000	9,730,000	13,440,000	170,120,000	High
Brunei	40,000	30,000	0	220,000	0	30,000	less than 10,000	330,000	Medium
Bulgaria	0	6,880,000	0	1,000,000	less than 10,000	20,000	330,000	8,230,000	High
Burkina Faso	0	2,560,000	0	6,800,000	0	2,520,000	60,000	11,940,000	Medium
Burundi	0	5,620,000	less than 10,000	230,000	0	820,000	10,000	6,700,000	Medium
Cambodia	10,780,000	70,000	0	240,000	0	20,000	50,000	11,170,000	High
Cameroon	less than 10,000	7,570,000	0	2,900,000	0	4,550,000	80,000	15,090,000	Medium
Canada	360,000	25,570,000	190,000	280,000	370,000	370,000	4,000,000	31,150,000	High
Cape Verde	0	410,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	430,000	Medium
Central African Republic	0	1,660,000	0	570,000	0	1,340,000	50,000	3,620,000	Medium
Chad	less than 10,000	2,270,000	0	4,120,000	0	1,240,000	10,000	7,650,000	Medium
Chile	less than 10,000	14,200,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	540,000	460,000	15,210,000	Low
China	102,200,000	71,550,000	20,000	20,000,000	less than 10,000	598,310,000	485,470,000	1,277,560,000	Medium
Colombia	less than 10,000	40,000,000	less than 10,000	30,000	less than 10,000	1,710,000	560,000	42,320,000	Low
Comoros	0	less than 10,000	0	680,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	690,000	Medium
Costa Rica	less than 10,000	3,770,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	70,000	180,000	4,020,000	Medium
Croatia	0	4,150,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	60,000	200,000	4,470,000	High
Cuba	0	8,100,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	7,840,000	1,680,000	11,200,000	Medium
Cyprus	0	560,000	0	180,000	less than 10,000	10,000	40,000	790,000	Medium
Czech Republic	less than 10,000	3,100,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,080,000	6,050,000	10,240,000	High
Democratic Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	47,010,000	80,000	670,000	less than 10,000	3,460,000	430,000	51,650,000	Medium
Denmark	less than 10,000	4,550,000	0	170,000	less than 10,000	120,000	440,000	5,290,000	High
Djibouti	0	10,000	less than 10,000	620,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	640,000	Medium
Dominica	less than 10,000	60,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	High
Dominican Republic	less than 10,000	6,530,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	80,000	1,650,000	8,260,000	Medium
Ecuador	less than 10,000	11,480,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	210,000	950,000	12,650,000	Medium
Egypt	0	7,960,000	0	60,250,000	0	20,000	230,000	68,470,000	Medium
El Salvador	less than 10,000	5,710,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	510,000	6,280,000	Medium
Equatorial Guinea	0	390,000	less than 10,000	20,000	0	30,000	10,000	450,000	Medium
Eritrea	0	1,810,000	less than 10,000	1,930,000	0	50,000	70,000	3,850,000	Low
Estonia	less than 10,000	400,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	230,000	760,000	1,400,000	High
Eswatini	0	860,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	130,000	10,000	1,010,000	Medium
Ethiopia	0	38,160,000	less than 10,000	20,610,000	10,000	3,680,000	100,000	62,570,000	Medium
Federated States of Micronesia	less than 10,000	100,000	0	0	0	10,000	less than 10,000	120,000	Medium
Fiji	0	450,000	260,000	50,000	0	40,000	10,000	820,000	Medium
Finland	less than 10,000	4,470,000	0	20,000	less than 10,000	20,000	670,000	5,180,000	High
France	590,000	42,880,000	0	4,450,000	620,000	40,000	10,500,000	59,080,000	Medium
Gabon	0	940,000	0	150,000	0	130,000	20,000	1,230,000	Medium
Gambia	0	40,000	less than 10,000	1,170,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	1,310,000	Medium
Georgia	0	4,410,000	0	460,000	10,000	10,000	80,000	4,970,000	High
Germany	80,000	56,330,000	60,000	3,000,000	190,000	760,000	21,800,000	82,220,000	Medium
Ghana	less than 10,000	10,990,000	less than 10,000	3,790,000	0	4,230,000	1,200,000	20,210,000	High
Greece	0	10,180,000	0	220,000	less than 10,000	50,000	190,000	10,650,000	Medium
Grenada	0	80,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	90,000	Medium
Guatemala	less than 10,000	11,050,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	280,000	11,390,000	Medium
Guinea	less than 10,000	530,000	0	6,320,000	0	560,000	10,000	7,430,000	Medium
Guinea-Bissau	0	150,000	0	510,000	0	550,000	20,000	1,210,000	Medium
Guyana	less than 10,000	430,000	210,000	50,000	less than 10,000	10,000	40,000	750,000	High
Haiti	0	7,380,000	0	0	less than 10,000	5,100,000	820,000	8,220,000	Medium
Honduras	0	6,330,000	0	0	0	100,000	100,000	6,530,000	Medium
Hungary	less than 10,000	7,460,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	490,000	2,060,000	10,040,000	High
Iceland	less than 10,000	270,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	280,000	High
India	7,960,000	24,080,000	827,580,000	137,840,000	less than 10,000	28,000,000	3,200,000	1,028,660,000	High
Indonesia	1,730,000	24,290,000	4,320,000	179,630,000	0	4,730,000	1,500,000	216,200,000	Medium
Iran	0	110,000	0	66,690,000	10,000	700,000	200,000	67,700,000	Medium
Iraq	0	430,000	0	21,960,000	0	260,000	460,000	23,120,000	Medium
Ireland	less than 10,000	3,530,000	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	40,000	130,000	3,730,000	High
Israel	0	130,000	0	860,000	4,910,000	180,000	140,000	6,220,000	High
Italy	60,000	48,960,000	0	950,000	30,000	100,000	7,200,000	57,300,000	High
Ivory Coast	less than 10,000	4,150,000	less than 10,000	5,720,000	0	4,780,000	120,000	14,790,000	Medium
Jamaica	less than 10,000	1,810,000	30,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	130,000	610,000	2,580,000	High
Japan	83,730,000	2,980,000	20,000	190,000	less than 10,000	97,400,000	14,190,000	126,710,000	Medium
Jordan	0	200,000	0	6,470,000	0	0	0	6,670,000	Medium
Kazakhstan	0	4,070,000	0	7,570,000	less than 10,000	40,000	4,540,000	16,220,000	Medium
Kenya	less than 10,000	23,880,000	140,000	2,410,000	less than 10,000	3,610,000	50,000	30,080,000	Medium
Kiribati	less than 10,000	100,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	100,000	Medium
Kuwait	0	0	80,000	1,590,000	0	300,000	0	1,970,000	Medium
Kyrgyzstan	0	820,000	0	3,760,000	less than 10,000	30,000	90,000	4,700,000	Medium
Laos	3,570,000	110,000	0	50,000	0	1,640,000	60,000	5,430,000	High
Latvia	less than 10,000	1,290,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	1,050,000	2,360,000	High
Lebanon	70,000	1,270,000	0	1,870,000	0	less than 10,000	80,000	3,280,000	Medium
Lesotho	0	1,910,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	230,000	10,000	2,150,000	Low
Liberia	0	1,230,000	0	630,000	0	1,240,000	50,000	3,150,000	Medium
Libya	0	170,000	0	5,440,000	0	0	0	5,610,000	Medium
Liechtenstein	less than 10,000	30,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	High
Lithuania	less than 10,000	3,120,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	70,000	480,000	3,670,000	High
Luxembourg	0	400,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	430,000	Medium
Madagascar	0	9,830,000	0	460,000	0	5,580,000	70,000	15,940,000	Medium
Malawi	0	6,890,000	20,000	1,690,000	less than 10,000	2,270,000	60,000	10,930,000	Medium
Malaysia	4,230,000	1,890,000	1,380,000	13,240,000	0	1,400,000	110,000	22,240,000	High
Maldives	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	280,000	0	less than 10,000	0	290,000	Medium
Mali	0	370,000	0	10,080,000	0	770,000	10,000	11,230,000	Medium
Malta	less than 10,000	370,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	390,000	High
Marshall Islands	0	60,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	60,000	Medium
Mauritania	0	less than 10,000	0	2,600,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	2,670,000	Medium
Mauritius	less than 10,000	370,000	560,000	180,000	0	20,000	20,000	1,160,000	Medium
Mexico	20,000	95,810,000	less than 10,000	260,000	120,000	610,000	2,050,000	98,880,000	Medium
Moldova	0	4,130,000	0	0	70,000	40,000	150,000	4,380,000	Low
Monaco	0	30,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	Medium
Mongolia	1,730,000	20,000	0	80,000	0	550,000	280,000	2,660,000	Medium
Morocco	0	30,000	0	28,000,000	less than 10,000	320,000	0	28,350,000	Medium
Mozambique	less than 10,000	7,570,000	30,000	4,330,000	less than 10,000	7,640,000	100,000	19,680,000	Low
Myanmar	34,910,000	3,210,000	50,000	1,820,000	less than 10,000	5,500,000	120,000	45,610,000	Medium
Namibia	0	1,470,000	0	10,000	0	210,000	30,000	1,730,000	Medium
Nauru	0	10,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	0	10,000	Medium
Nepal	2,580,000	400,000	18,950,000	1,010,000	0	910,000	80,000	23,930,000	High
Netherlands	160,000	10,630,000	100,000	780,000	20,000	50,000	4,050,000	15,790,000	Medium
New Zealand	40,000	2,540,000	60,000	40,000	less than 10,000	150,000	1,030,000	3,860,000	High
Nicaragua	less than 10,000	4,900,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	40,000	230,000	5,170,000	High
Niger	0	380,000	0	9,820,000	0	520,000	less than 10,000	10,730,000	Medium
Nigeria	less than 10,000	49,260,000	0	60,000,000	less than 10,000	10,410,000	320,000	120,000,000	Medium
North Korea	1,100,000	400,000	0	0	0	7,080,000	15,460,000	24,040,000	Low
North Macedonia	0	1,320,000	0	670,000	0	less than 10,000	30,000	2,020,000	High
Norway	40,000	3,960,000	0	60,000	less than 10,000	80,000	330,000	4,470,000	Medium
Oman	less than 10,000	70,000	70,000	2,380,000	0	30,000	0	2,550,000	Medium
Pakistan	90,000	2,660,000	3,440,000	149,740,000	0	400,000	150,000	156,480,000	Medium
Palau	less than 10,000	20,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	Medium
Panama	less than 10,000	2,770,000	less than 10,000	10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	0	2,860,000	Low
Papua New Guinea	less than 10,000	4,610,000	0	less than 10,000	0	160,000	30,000	4,810,000	High
Paraguay	less than 10,000	5,330,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	20,000	140,000	5,500,000	Medium
Peru	less than 10,000	23,530,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	1,650,000	460,000	25,660,000	Medium
Philippines	80,000	70,510,000	0	4,060,000	less than 10,000	1,380,000	490,000	76,510,000	Medium
Poland	0	36,630,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	190,000	1,940,000	38,770,000	Medium
Portugal	60,000	8,440,000	less than 10,000	40,000	less than 10,000	990,000	340,000	9,880,000	Medium
Qatar	10,000	90,000	160,000	280,000	0	50,000	10,000	600,000	Low
Republic of the Congo	less than 10,000	2,430,000	0	40,000	0	360,000	110,000	2,940,000	Medium
Romania	0	21,980,000	0	70,000	less than 10,000	40,000	230,000	22,330,000	High
Russia	1,800,000	105,990,000	0	20,570,000	620,000	160,000	17,800,000	146,930,000	Medium
Rwanda	0	6,780,000	less than 10,000	330,000	0	610,000	20,000	7,730,000	Medium
Samoa	less than 10,000	170,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	180,000	Medium
San Marino	0	30,000	0	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	30,000	High
Sao Tome and Principe	0	130,000	0	less than 10,000	0	10,000	less than 10,000	150,000	Medium
Saudi Arabia	0	650,000	220,000	19,350,000	0	370,000	220,000	20,810,000	Medium
Senegal	less than 10,000	380,000	0	8,850,000	0	230,000	20,000	9,480,000	Medium
Seychelles	0	70,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	80,000	Medium
Sierra Leone	0	860,000	less than 10,000	2,810,000	0	1,130,000	50,000	4,850,000	Medium
Singapore	1,710,000	590,000	160,000	600,000	less than 10,000	370,000	600,000	4,020,000	High
Slovakia	0	4,520,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	170,000	700,000	5,390,000	High
Slovenia	0	1,580,000	0	50,000	less than 10,000	160,000	200,000	1,990,000	High
Solomon Islands	less than 10,000	410,000	0	less than 10,000	0	30,000	less than 10,000	440,000	Medium
Somalia	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,050,000	0	30,000	less than 10,000	10,100,000	Medium
South Africa	100,000	31,630,000	560,000	650,000	80,000	5,510,000	1,850,000	40,380,000	High
South Korea	10,630,000	12,740,000	0	40,000	less than 10,000	1,530,000	21,910,000	46,840,000	Low
Spain	10,000	34,100,000	0	450,000	50,000	60,000	4,950,000	39,630,000	High
Sri Lanka	12,990,000	1,190,000	1,310,000	1,450,000	0	100,000	60,000	17,100,000	High
St. Kitts and Nevis	0	40,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	50,000	Medium
St. Lucia	0	140,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	150,000	High
St. Vincent and the Grenadines	0	100,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	0	less than 10,000	10,000	110,000	Medium
Sudan (with today's South Sudan)	0	3,500,000	0	20,050,000	0	5,930,000	0	29,490,000	Low
Suriname	less than 10,000	230,000	100,000	70,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	420,000	Medium
Sweden	less than 10,000	7,730,000	less than 10,000	350,000	20,000	less than 10,000	790,000	8,910,000	Medium
Switzerland	20,000	6,120,000	20,000	310,000	20,000	90,000	810,000	7,390,000	High
Syria	0	1,490,000	0	14,510,000	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	120,000	16,130,000	Medium
Taiwan	5,490,000	1,180,000	0	80,000	less than 10,000	13,590,000	1,530,000	21,880,000	High
Tajikistan	0	190,000	0	5,880,000	less than 10,000	60,000	60,000	6,190,000	Medium
Tanzania	less than 10,000	16,990,000	290,000	11,730,000	0	4,390,000	110,000	33,520,000	Medium
Thailand	53,420,000	610,000	50,000	6,140,000	less than 10,000	760,000	420,000	61,400,000	Medium
Togo	0	1,920,000	0	560,000	0	2,140,000	10,000	4,630,000	High
Tonga	less than 10,000	90,000	less than 10,000	0	0	20,000	less than 10,000	110,000	Medium
Trinidad and Tobago	less than 10,000	790,000	330,000	90,000	less than 10,000	50,000	30,000	1,300,000	Medium
Tunisia	0	20,000	0	9,490,000	less than 10,000	70,000	0	9,590,000	Medium
Turkey	0	330,000	0	65,760,000	20,000	370,000	100,000	66,590,000	Medium
Turkmenistan	less than 10,000	400,000	0	3,970,000	0	40,000	40,000	4,460,000	High
Tuvalu	0	10,000	0	0	0	less than 10,000	less than 10,000	10,000	Medium
Uganda	less than 10,000	17,830,000	160,000	2,630,000	less than 10,000	1,020,000	130,000	21,780,000	Medium
Ukraine	50,000	41,630,000	0	350,000	150,000	70,000	8,200,000	50,460,000	Medium
United Arab Emirates	less than 10,000	170,000	620,000	1,580,000	0	30,000	30,000	2,440,000	Medium
United Kingdom	190,000	42,460,000	570,000	1,830,000	280,000	640,000	12,870,000	58,830,000	High
United States	2,450,000	219,820,000	830,000	2,560,000	5,010,000	3,160,000	44,540,000	278,360,000	High
Uruguay	less than 10,000	2,470,000	0	less than 10,000	50,000	190,000	630,000	3,340,000	Medium
Uzbekistan	0	2,610,000	less than 10,000	21,400,000	30,000	110,000	170,000	24,320,000	Medium
Vanuatu	less than 10,000	170,000	0	0	0	20,000	less than 10,000	190,000	Medium
Venezuela	less than 10,000	22,760,000	0	30,000	20,000	150,000	1,210,000	24,170,000	Medium
Vietnam	39,920,000	6,870,000	50,000	80,000	0	3,220,000	29,700,000	79,830,000	Medium
Yemen	0	0	0	18,120,000	0	0	0	18,120,000	Medium
Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro, with Kosovo)	0	9,760,000	0	340,000	less than 10,000	70,000	470,000	10,640,000	High
Zambia	less than 10,000	7,510,000	10,000	60,000	less than 10,000	1,560,000	20,000	9,170,000	Medium
Zimbabwe	less than 10,000	7,560,000	20,000	80,000	10,000	3,820,000	180,000	11,670,000	Medium

No figures at 2000: American Samoa, Aruba, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Curaçao, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, French Guiana, French Polynesia, Gaza Strip, Greenland, Guadeloupe, Guam, Hong Kong, Isle of Man, Jersey, Martinique, Mayotte, New Caledonia, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, Reunion, Saint-Martin, Timor-Leste, Turks and Caicos Islands, United States Virgin Islands, West Bank, Western Sahara.

Pew Research Center, 2010 and 2020

For each of the five faiths, the ten countries and territories with the most followers in 2020, with Pew's rounded counts for 2010 and 2020.⁸⁷³ Pew's dataset page offers the full dataset, for the 201 countries and territories Pew covers, as a download that needs a Pew account.

Buddhists: the ten countries with the most in 2020
Country or territory	2010	2020
Thailand	64,090,000	67,620,000
China	76,100,000	53,380,000
Myanmar	42,960,000	47,210,000
Japan	53,580,000	46,990,000
Vietnam	24,130,000	22,580,000
Cambodia	14,060,000	16,240,000
Sri Lanka	14,640,000	15,700,000
South Korea	12,470,000	9,850,000
India	8,690,000	9,550,000
Malaysia	5,680,000	6,400,000

Christians: the ten countries with the most in 2020
Country or territory	2010	2020
United States	243,500,000	217,270,000
Brazil	172,700,000	168,300,000
Mexico	107,960,000	113,070,000
Philippines	88,410,000	102,510,000
Russia	110,960,000	102,350,000
Nigeria	73,980,000	92,770,000
Democratic Republic of the Congo	66,160,000	92,400,000
Ethiopia	56,640,000	73,230,000
South Africa	44,140,000	51,630,000
Italy	53,240,000	48,210,000

Hindus: the ten countries with the most in 2020
Country or territory	2010	2020
India	994,460,000	1,113,200,000
Nepal	22,290,000	23,520,000
Bangladesh	13,030,000	13,140,000
Pakistan	3,510,000	5,030,000
Indonesia	4,170,000	4,350,000
Sri Lanka	2,630,000	3,280,000
United States	1,790,000	3,040,000
Malaysia	1,800,000	2,070,000
United Kingdom	930,000	1,140,000
United Arab Emirates	750,000	1,110,000

Muslims: the ten countries with the most in 2020
Country or territory	2010	2020
Indonesia	215,600,000	238,990,000
Pakistan	192,640,000	226,880,000
India	177,380,000	213,060,000
Bangladesh	137,550,000	151,440,000
Nigeria	90,890,000	119,980,000
Egypt	84,650,000	104,040,000
Iran	77,210,000	87,520,000
Turkey	72,340,000	83,600,000
Sudan	35,310,000	46,250,000
Algeria	35,670,000	43,330,000

Jews: the ten countries with the most in 2020
Country or territory	2010	2020
Israel	5,760,000	6,780,000
United States	5,710,000	5,730,000
France	490,000	460,000
Canada	340,000	350,000
United Kingdom	280,000	300,000
Argentina	180,000	170,000
Germany	120,000	120,000
Russia	200,000	120,000
Australia	110,000	110,000
Brazil	110,000	90,000

No figures in 2010 and 2020: American Samoa, Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, British Virgin Islands, Cayman Islands, Dominica, Falkland Islands / Malvinas, Faroe Islands, Greenland, Isle of Man, Nauru, Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint-Martin, Turks and Caicos Islands.

Pew Research Center bears no responsibility for the analyses or interpretations of the data presented here. The opinions expressed herein, including any implications for policy, are those of the author and not of Pew Research Center.⁸⁸⁴

Base map

The base map and the states and provinces used as building blocks come from Natural Earth, whose map data is in the public domain.⁹⁰² The map uses the Equal Earth projection, which keeps the relative size of areas, so no region looks larger or smaller than it is because of where it lies.⁹⁰³

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GeoNames. Bodh Gaya (GeoNames 1275389). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Sarnath (GeoNames 1257137). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kushinagar (GeoNames 12032137). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Patna (GeoNames 1260086). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
F. W. Thomas. Tibetan Literary Texts and Documents Concerning Chinese Turkestan, Part I. Royal Asiatic Society, 1935, 75, 105. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Jens-Uwe Hartmann. Buddhism: Buddhism in Central Asia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005, opening section; "Beginnings"; "Forms of Buddhism"; "Languages"; "Indigenous developments". Accessed 2026-11-07.
John Canti. Khotan and Khotanese. 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Hetian (Hotan) prefecture (GeoNames 1281018). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Frank E. Reynolds and Charles Hallisey. Buddhism: An Overview. Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 1987, introduction; "Buddhism as Pan-Asian Civilization"; "Buddhism as Cultural Religion". Accessed 2026-10-28.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Gandhara. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Peshawar (GeoNames 1168197). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Taxila (GeoNames 1163715). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kate Crosby. Theravada. Encyclopedia of Buddhism (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2004. Accessed 2026-10-28.
Donald K. Swearer. Buddhism: Buddhism in Southeast Asia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 1987, opening section; "Early Development"; "Classical Period" (Burma; Thailand; Cambodia and Laos; Summary). Accessed 2026-11-07.
Asia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 2 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article ASIA: its sections on Arabia, Hindoostan, Ceylon, Aracan and the Birman empire (from the account of Michael Symes's embassy), the Malays, Ciampa, Cochin China, China, and Tibet, and its paragraphs on the religions of Asia. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Stephen F. Teiser. Buddhism: Buddhism in China. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-28.
GeoNames. Bagram (GeoNames 1147513). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Xuzhou. Encyclopaedia Britannica, introduction; "History". Accessed 2026-11-07.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Tonkin. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Robert Evans Buswell Jr.. Buddhism: Buddhism in Korea. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-28.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Goguryeo. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Baekje. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Gyeongju Historic Areas (World Heritage List, no. 976). UNESCO, description; "Brief synthesis" and "Integrity". Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Gyeongju (GeoNames 1841603). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Prome (Pyay) (GeoNames 1299154). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Dvaravati. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Nakhon Pathom (GeoNames 1608534). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. My Son Sanctuary (World Heritage List, no. 949). UNESCO, Brief synthesis; coordinates. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Alexis Sanderson. The Saiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Saivism during the Early Medieval Period. In Shingo Einoo (ed.), Genesis and Development of Tantrism, Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series 23 (Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo), 2009, essay pp. 41 to 349; cited: p. 45 (the Siddhanta, the Parameshvara, and the Matangaparameshvara), p. 51 and notes 23 and 24 (the Skandapurana, its manuscript, and its era; note 24 runs onto p. 52), p. 314 (the Cambridge manuscript), p. 322 (the Skandapurana manuscript); the spread map also cites p. 44 and note 8 (Karnataka), p. 72 (Valabhi), p. 73 (the Karkotas of Kashmir, and note 94 on the inscription of 766 to 767), pp. 74 to 77 (Nepal), p. 105 (the Majapahit superintendents), and p. 118 (Airlangga, Singhasari, and Majapahit). Accessed 2026-11-06.
D. O. Lodrick. Newars. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, Introduction; Religion. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Swayambhunath (GeoNames 10276844). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Borobudur (GeoNames 1648141). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Matthew T. Kapstein. Buddhism: Buddhism in Tibet. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-28.
GeoNames. Sangye Si (GeoNames 10272937). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Rungroj Thamrungraeng. Phra That Phnom. Arts in Southeast Asia Database, Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn Anthropology Centre, 2015. Accessed 2026-11-10.
That Phanom (GeoNames 1605483). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-10.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. Srivijaya empire. Encyclopaedia Britannica, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Palembang (GeoNames 1633070). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Brian O. Ruppert. Buddhism: Buddhism in Japan. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-28.
GeoNames. Bagan (GeoNames 1302638). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Thaton (GeoNames 1292288). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Lamphun (GeoNames 1152468). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Nakhon Si Thammarat (GeoNames 1151933). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Christopher P. Atwood. Buddhism: Buddhism in Mongolia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd edition (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005, whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Patrick Gordon. Geography Anatomiz'd: or, The Compleat Geographical Grammar, second edition. Robert Morden and Thomas Cockerill, London; read in the Internet Archive's scan of a microfilm copy, 1699, part II: Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Scotland, Muscovy, Poland, Portugal, Hungary, and Italy; Turkey in Europe (section 2, Greece; section 3, Little Tartary; section 4, the Danubian provinces); the European islands (Corsica and Sardinia, Sicily, Cyprus, Zante, Cephalonia, Corfu); Tartary; China; India (section 1, the Mughal's empire; section 2, the peninsula within the Ganges; section 3, the peninsula beyond the Ganges); Persia; Turkey in Asia (section 1, Natolia, with the patriarchs; section 3, Syria and Palestine; section 4, the Euphratian provinces); Japan; the Asiatic islands (the Maldives and Ceylon); Egypt; Nubia; Abyssinia; Biledulgerid; America (New Spain, Terra Firma, Peru, Brazil) (each section's paragraphs headed Religion, and some headed Manners or Rarities). Accessed 2026-11-11.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. IX: Bomjur to Central India. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Burdwan Division", pp. 89 to 90; "Burma", pp. 142 to 143. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Burmah. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 5 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1854); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1854, the article BURMAH: its paragraphs on the population, the priesthood, and religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Siam. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 20 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1860); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1860, the article SIAM: its paragraphs on the population, education, and religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Tibet. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 21 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1860); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1860, the article TIBET: its paragraph on the inhabitants and religion, and on the government. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Gilgit-Baltistan (GeoNames 1168878). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Ceylon. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 6 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1854); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1854, the article CEYLON: its paragraphs on language, religion, caste, crime, and education. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Astrakhanskaya guberniya, Astrakhan province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Astrakhanskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Astrakhanskaya guberniya (Astrakhan province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Astrakhanskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Astrakhan (GeoNames 580497). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka. Statistical Abstract 2024, Table 2.13: Population by Religion and Census years. Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka, 2024, Table 2.13 (p. 81). Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Zabaykalskaya oblast, Transbaikal province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Zabaykalskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Zabaykalskaya oblast (Transbaikal province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Zabaykalskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Ulan-Ude (Verkhneudinsk) (GeoNames 2014407). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Holy Apostles Thaddeus and Bartholomew. Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin (Armenian Apostolic Church), Liturgical Calendar. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Tiran Nersoyan. Armenian Church. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Monastery of Saint Thaddeus (GeoNames 6942008). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Monastery of Saint Bartholomew (GeoNames 13607918). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Restoration of the Autocephaly of the Georgian Apostolic Church. International Charitable Foundation of the Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia, 2013. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Thomas Hopko. The Orthodox Faith, Volume III, Church History: First Century, Christ and the Apostles. Orthodox Church in America, 1981. Accessed 2026-10-28.
C. Toumanoff. Georgia, Church in Ancient. New Catholic Encyclopedia, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Jaroslav Pelikan. Christianity: Christianity in Western Europe. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
The Legend of the 'Old Church'. Glastonbury Abbey Archaeology project, University of Reading. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Cyprus. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 7, via Wikisource, 1911, Population. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Sergew Habele Selassie. The Establishment of the Ethiopian Church. Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church (ethiopianorthodox.org). Accessed 2026-11-10.
Aaron Michael Butts. Ezana of Aksum: The First Christian African King. Aethiopica 28 (University of Hamburg), 2025, 7-38. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Aksum (GeoNames 344420). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Stephen C. Neill. Missions: Christian Missions. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
FRONTLINE (WGBH Educational Foundation). Chronology, From Jesus to Christ: The First Christians. PBS, 1998. Accessed 2026-10-28.
Jaroslav Pelikan. Christianity: An Overview. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Stephen C. Neill and Mark R. Mullins. Christianity: Christianity in Asia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
History. Malankara Mar Thoma Syrian Church. Accessed 2026-11-07.
James R. Russell. Christianity i. In Pre-Islamic Persia: Literary Sources. Encyclopaedia Iranica, vol. V, fasc. 5, via the Internet Archive copy of December 16, 2023, 1991. Accessed 2026-11-11.
M. J. Costelloe and the editors. Assyrian Church of the East. New Catholic Encyclopedia, 2nd ed. (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, 2003. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Susa (GeoNames 114593). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kharg Island (GeoNames 127757). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Cizre (GeoNames 318253). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Tacitus (translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb). The Annals, Book 15, chapter 44. Perseus Digital Library, Tufts University, Book 15, chapter 44. Accessed 2026-10-28.
Rome (GeoNames 3169070). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Andrea Pacini. Christianity: Christianity in the Middle East. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Feast of the First Armenian Illuminators Celebrated in the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. Armenian Apostolic Holy Church, Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yücetepe (Ashtishat) (GeoNames 296543). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Aziz Suryal Atiya. Christianity: Christianity in North Africa. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
G. Orlandi. Edessa. New Catholic Encyclopedia (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Thomas A. Carlson. The Long Shadow of Sasanian Christianity: The Limits of Iraqi Islamization in the Abbasid Period. Mizan (Global Late Antiquity series), Mizan Project, 2018. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Şanlıurfa (GeoNames 298333). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Stanley Samuel Harakas. Christianity: Christianity in Eastern Europe. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Rugare Rukuni. Negus Ezana: Revisiting the Christianisation of Aksum. Verbum et Ecclesia 42(1), a2083 (peer-reviewed, open access), 2021, pages 1 to 2. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Cyprus, Church of. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 7, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Merv (GeoNames 13590609). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Nusaybin (Nisibis) (GeoNames 303750). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Maribel Fierro. Islam: Islam in Andalusia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
St. Gregory the Illuminator's Emergence from the Pit (Liturgical Calendar). Armenian Apostolic Holy Church, Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin, 2026. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Mtskheta (GeoNames 612890). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
World Council of Churches. Church families: Orthodox churches (Oriental). World Council of Churches. Accessed 2026-10-28.
Donald Quataert. Ottoman Empire: Overview. Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, 2004. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Shaun O'Sullivan. Coptic Conversion and the Islamization of Egypt. Mamluk Studies Review 10, no. 2 (Middle East Documentation Center, University of Chicago); open access under CC BY 4.0, 2006, 65 to 79. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Metin Tuncel. Muş. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi). Accessed 2026-11-11.
Charles William Wilson. Armenia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 2, via Wikisource, 1911, opening paragraphs, Population, History. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Herman Moll. A System of Geography: or, A New and Accurate Description of the Earth in All Its Empires, Kingdoms and States. Timothy Childe, London; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of Pittsburgh Library System copy, 1701, the general account of Europe; the Low Countries; Brandenburg; Bohemia; Austria (Vienna); Spain; Portugal; Denmark; Iceland; Poland; Lithuania; Muscovy; Sclavonia; France; the Venetian islands (Cephalonia); Turkey in Europe (Macedonia with Thessalonica, Achaia with Thebes, Castri, and Athens, Negropont, Bosnia, Servia, Bulgaria, and Romania or Thrace with Gallipoli); the Crimea; Tartary-Minor; Turkey in Asia (Natolia with Smyrna and Pergamum, Cyprus, Turcomania and Armenia Major, Van); Arabia; Persia; Georgia and Mengrelia; India (its religion; Siba; Kashmir; Goa); Japan; Abyssinia and Nubia; Kongo; Florida; New Mexico; the Caribbean islands (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, Barbados). Accessed 2026-11-11.
Egypt. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 7 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article EGYPT: its account of the four races of inhabitants and of the trade of Egypt. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Egypt. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 8 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1855); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1855, the article EGYPT, section I: the modern inhabitants, their numbers by class, and their religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Thomas A. Carlson. Contours of Conversion: The Geography of Islamization in Syria, 600-1500. Journal of the American Oriental Society 135, no. 4 (American Oriental Society; Lockwood Online Journals), 2015, 791 to 816. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Xi'an (GeoNames 1790630). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Getatchew Haile. Ethiopian Church. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Thomas Hopko. The Orthodox Faith, Volume III, Church History: Tenth Century, Saint Vladimir of Kiev. Orthodox Church in America, 1981. Accessed 2026-10-28.
GeoNames. Samarkand (GeoNames 1216265). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Istanbul (GeoNames 745044). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Sidney H. Rooy. Christianity: Christianity in Latin America. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kozan (Sis) (GeoNames 306112). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Abyssinia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 1 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article ABYSSINIA, Abassia, or Upper Ethiopia: its history and its description of the provinces, drawn from Bruce's travels. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Abyssinia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 2 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1853); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1853, the article ABYSSINIA: its account of the kingdoms, peoples, languages, and religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Debre Lībanos Tekle Haymanot Bēte Kristīyan (GeoNames 339711). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Yunus Koç. Nüfus (section: Osmanlı Dönemi). TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2007. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition (article signed "J. D. B."). Albania. Encyclopaedia Britannica (Cambridge University Press, 1910 to 1911), via Wikisource, 1910, sections "Population" and "Religions". Accessed 2026-11-07.
John R. Lampe. Bosnia and Herzegovina: Ottoman Bosnia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, section "Ottoman Bosnia". Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yaacov Geller, Haim Z'ew Hirschberg, Leah Bornstein-Makovetsky, and Isaiah Friedman. Ottoman Empire. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mehmet Hacısalihoğlu. Yunanistan (section: Ülkede İslâmiyet). TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2013. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Myles Hudson. Fall of Constantinople. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Dobrudja. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 8, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Machiel Kiel. Filibe. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 1996. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Plovdiv (GeoNames 728193). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
M. Tayyib Gökbilgin. Edirne (section on the city's history). TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 1994. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Halil İnalcık. İstanbul (section: Türk Devri). TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2001. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Muhammed Aruçi. Ohri. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2007. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Machiel Kiel. Yenişehir. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2013. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Larissa (GeoNames 258576). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mbanza Kongo, Vestiges of the Capital of the former Kingdom of Kongo. UNESCO World Heritage Centre, 2017. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mbanza Kongo (GeoNames 2239520). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
George Eaton Simpson. Christianity: Christianity in the Caribbean Region. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Hispaniola (GeoNames 3504558). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Adrianople (vilayet). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 1, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Edirne (Adrianople) (GeoNames 747712). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kirklareli (Kirk-Kilisseh) (GeoNames 743166). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Corlu (Chorlu) (GeoNames 748893). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Komotini (Gumuljina) (GeoNames 735640). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kemal H. Karpat. The Population of Istanbul: From the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Early Twentieth Century. A History of Istanbul, vol. 3 (İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Kültür A.Ş.), via the Internet Archive copy of December 7, 2024. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Mosul (GeoNames 99072). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Diyarbakır (GeoNames 316541). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
İlhan Şahin. Sofya. TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2009. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Sofia (GeoNames 727011). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Catherine L. Albanese. Christianity: Christianity in North America. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Nathaniel Katzburg and others. Hungary. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Patras (GeoNames 255683). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Ioannina (Iannina) (GeoNames 261779). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yehuda Slutsky and others. Kiev. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Prizren (GeoNames 786712). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Pristina (GeoNames 786714). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Debar (Dibra) (GeoNames 791606). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Ohrid (Ochrida) (GeoNames 787487). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Plav (Plava) (GeoNames 3193228). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Gusinje (Gusinye) (GeoNames 3199463). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Orhan Kılıç. Van (section on the Ottoman period). TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi (TDV İslâm Araştırmaları Merkezi), 2012. Accessed 2026-11-11.
A. H. Johns. Islam: Islam in Southeast Asia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-29.
GeoNames. Limmu (GeoNames 331988). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Library of Congress. Religion and the Founding of the American Republic: America as a Religious Refuge, The Seventeenth Century, Part 1. Library of Congress (online exhibition). Accessed 2026-11-07.
Persia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 16 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article PERSIA: its account of the government, trade, and people, largely from William Francklin's tour of 1786 and 1787. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Persia. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 17 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1859); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1859, the article PERSIA: its paragraphs on Urumiyah, the classes of the people, taxes, and religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Turkey. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 27, via Wikisource, 1911, Race and Religion, and the table of races, vilayets, and religions. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Turkey. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 20 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article TURKEY: its paragraphs on population, revenue, religion and laws, trade, and the manners of the Turks. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Europe. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 8 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article EUROPE, the paragraph on religion. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Bosnia and Herzegovina. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 4, via Wikisource, 1911, section 12, Religion. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Hindustan. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 11 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1856); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1856, the article HINDUSTAN: its account of the races and classes of the people. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Colin Brown. Christianity: Christianity in Australia and New Zealand. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Yangon (GeoNames 1298824). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Alan Fisher. Crimean Khanate. Encyclopedia of Russian History (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2004. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Europe. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 9 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1855); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1855, the article EUROPE, the sections on languages and on religions, pp. 390 to 395. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Ufimskaya guberniya, Ufa province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Ufimskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Ufimskaya guberniya (Ufa province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Ufimskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Ufa (GeoNames 479561). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Menzelinsk (GeoNames 527529). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population, Executive Summary. Pew Research Center, 2011, Executive Summary. Accessed 2026-10-28.
Turkey. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 21 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1860); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1860, the article TURKEY, section on statistics: the people, the table of population according to religions (p. 378), and religion and laws. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Martaban (GeoNames 1310460). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Alexandre Bennigsen and Fanny E. Bryan. Islam: Islam in the Caucasus and the Middle Volga. Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan), via Encyclopedia.com, 1987, the Caucasus and Middle Volga sections. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Dagestanskaya oblast, Dagestan province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Dagestanskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Terskaya oblast, Terek province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Terskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Kazanskaya guberniya, Kazan province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Kazanskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Stavropolskaya guberniya, Stavropol province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Stavropolskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Dagestanskaya oblast (Dagestan province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Dagestanskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Terskaya oblast (Terek province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Terskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Kazanskaya guberniya (Kazan province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Kazanskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Stavropolskaya guberniya (Stavropol province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Stavropolskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Derbent (GeoNames 566532). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Vladikavkaz (GeoNames 473249). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Grozny (GeoNames 558418). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Nalchik (GeoNames 523523). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Pyatigorsk (GeoNames 503550). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Andrew F. Walls. Crowther, Samuel Ajayi (A): Foremost African Christian of the Nineteenth Century. Dictionary of African Christian Biography (reproduced from Mission Legacies, Orbis Books, 1994, and the International Bulletin of Missionary Research 16, 1992), 1994. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Kossovo. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 15, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Zlatoust (GeoNames 462444). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Central Region, Uganda (GeoNames 234594). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Kubanskaya oblast, Kuban province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Kubanskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Irkutskaya guberniya, Irkutsk province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Irkutskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: population present by province, district, and town (Kubanskaya oblast (Kuban province)). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Kubanskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kirghiz. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 15, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Cheboksary (GeoNames 569696). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yoshkar-Ola (Tsarevokokshaysk) (GeoNames 466806). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. I: The Indian Empire, Descriptive. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1909, chapter IX, "Population", pp. 471 to 477. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Orumiyeh (Urmia) (GeoNames 121801). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Onitsha (GeoNames 2326016). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Elisavetpolskaya guberniya, Elisavetpol province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Elisavetpolskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Bakinskaya guberniya, Baku province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Bakinskaya guberniya. Accessed 2026-11-07.
John Punnett Peters. Basra. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 3, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Basrah (GeoNames 99532). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Mosul. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 18, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Bagdad (city). Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th ed. (1911), vol. 3, via Wikisource, 1911. Accessed 2026-11-11.
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Ralph T. H. Griffith (translator). The Hymns of the Rigveda, vol. IV (book X). E. J. Lazarus and Co., Benares; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Indian history resource collection), 1892, book X, hymn 75, verse 5, and Griffith's note to it (pp. 251 to 252). Accessed 2026-11-07.
Nithin Sridhar (interview with Michel Danino). Neither Aryans migrated into north-west India, nor did Tamils migrate into South India: Michel Danino. NewsGram, 2016. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Akhilesh Pillalamarri. When History Gets Political: India's Grand Aryan Debate and the Indus Valley Civilization. The Diplomat, 2016. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Alf Hiltebeitel. Hinduism. Encyclopedia of Religion, hosted by Encyclopedia.com, 1987, sections "Indus Valley Religion", "Vedism", the shruti and smriti section, the Vedanta section on Shankara, and "Sectarian Hinduism". Accessed 2026-10-29.
R. N. Dandekar. Vaisnavism: An Overview. Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan Reference), via Encyclopedia.com, 1987. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Vasudha Narayanan. Hinduism: Vaishnavism. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-10-29.
John B. Carman. Bhakti. Encyclopedia of Religion (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, 1987. Accessed 2026-10-29.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXIII: Singhbhum to Trashi-Chod-Zong. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Thanesar Town", p. 305. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Thanesar (GeoNames 1254657). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
I Nyoman Rema, I Gusti Ngurah Sudiana, and I Nyoman Suarka. Asal-Usul dan Evolusi Aksara Suci Om-kara di Bali. Purbawidya 13.1 (BRIN), 2024, 26-41. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Joan P. Mencher. Nambudiri Brahman. Encyclopedia of World Cultures (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, Orientation; History and Cultural Relations; Religion. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Vasudha Narayanan. Hinduism in Southeast Asia. Encyclopedia of Religion, 2nd ed. (Macmillan Reference USA), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Pashupatinath temple (GeoNames 1282932). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. VII: Bareilly to Berasia. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Benares City", pp. 189 to 191. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Varanasi (GeoNames 1253405). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Valabhipur (GeoNames 1253512). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Joseph T. O'Connell. Caitanya. Encyclopedia of Religion (Macmillan Reference), via Encyclopedia.com, 2005. Accessed 2026-10-29.
David N. Lorenzen. Saivism: An Overview. Encyclopedia of Religion, hosted by Encyclopedia.com, 1987, opening paragraphs and closing section. Accessed 2026-10-29.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Great Living Chola Temples (World Heritage List, no. 250). UNESCO, Brief synthesis; coordinates. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Kay Koppedrayer. Guardians of South Indian Saivism. Hinduism Today, 2024. Accessed 2026-10-29.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Prambanan Temple Compounds (World Heritage List, no. 642). UNESCO, Brief synthesis; criteria (i) and (iv); coordinates. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Nathan Katz and Avigdor Herzog. India. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Ancient City of Polonnaruwa (World Heritage List, no. 201). UNESCO, the short description. Accessed 2026-11-07.
D. O. Lodrick. Tamils. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, Introduction. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Hugh B. Urban. Hinduism: Shaivism. Worldmark Encyclopedia of Religious Practices (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Ann P. McCauley. Balinese. Encyclopedia of World Cultures (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, Orientation; History and Cultural Relations. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Haridwar (GeoNames 1270351). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XI: Coondapoor to Edwardesabad, "Delhi Division". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Delhi Division", p. 223. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XVI: Kotchandpur to Mahavinyaka, "Kumaun". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Kumaun", pp. 18 to 19. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. VII: Bareilly to Berasia, "Baroda State". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Baroda State", p. 25 (opening) and p. 41 (population and religion). Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXII: Samadhiala to Singhana. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Sind", p. 406. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XVI: Kotchandpur to Mahe. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Lahore Division", pp. 95 to 96. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XVIII: Moram to Nayagarh. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Multan Division", pp. 21 to 22. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XIV: Jaisalmer to Kara, "Jullundur Division". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Jullundur Division", pp. 220 to 221. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXI: Pushkar to Salween. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan, 1908, "Rajshahi Division", pp. 158 to 159; "Rawalpindi Division", p. 261. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Alexander Johnston. A Letter to the Secretary relating to the preceding Inscription. Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1 (Cambridge University Press), 1827. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Jaffna (GeoNames 1242833). GeoNames. Accessed 2026-11-10.
Hindoos. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 10 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article HINDOOS, its opening sentences. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Hindostan. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 4th ed., vol. 10 (Edinburgh, Andrew Bell for Archibald Constable and Company, 1810); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California Libraries copy, 1810, the article HINDOSTAN: its sections on the Sikhs, the Hindu and Muslim powers, and the government of the British provinces. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Ranchi (GeoNames 1258526). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Kangra (GeoNames 1268084). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Shimla (GeoNames 1256237). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XIX: Nayakanhatti to Parbhani. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan, 1908, "North-West Frontier Province", p. 167. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Worldmark Encyclopedia of Cultures and Daily Life. Hindus of Guyana. Gale, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-10-29.
Morton Klass. East Indians in Trinidad. Encyclopedia of World Cultures (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, Orientation; History and Cultural Relations; Religious Beliefs. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XX: Pardi to Pusad. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Presidency Division", pp. 216 to 217. Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXIII: Singhbhum to Trashi-Chod-Zong. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Sylhet District", the opening and p. 193. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Gaur (GeoNames 1271469). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Jalpaiguri (GeoNames 1269388). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XII: Eklingji to Gwalior, "Gujarat". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Gujarat", pp. 349 and 352. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XI: Coondapoor to Edwardesabad, "Dehra Dun District". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Dehra Dun District", p. 209 (opening). Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXIII: Singhbhum to Trashi-Chod-Zong, "Tehri State". Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Tehri State", pp. 269 to 270. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Nainital district (GeoNames 1262118). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XIII: Gyaraspur to Jais. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan of the University of California copy, 1908, "Hyderabad State", p. 227 (opening) and p. 247 (religion); "Indore State", p. 333 (opening) and p. 336 (Ahalya Bai). Accessed 2026-11-07.
India Office (Great Britain). The Imperial Gazetteer of India, new edition, vol. XXIV: Travancore to Zira. Clarendon Press, Oxford; read in the Internet Archive's scan (Digital Library of India), 1908, "Travancore State", p. 1 (opening) and p. 9 (population by religion). Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Ferganskaya oblast, Fergana province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Ferganskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Demoscope Weekly, republishing the First General Census of the Russian Empire (1897). First General Census of the Russian Empire, 1897: distribution of the population by religion and region (Syr-Daryinskaya oblast, Syr-Darya province). Demoscope Weekly, the table for Syr-Daryinskaya oblast. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Alan D. Corre, Ezer Kahanov, Cecil Roth, and Yitzhak Kerem. Sephardim. Encyclopaedia Judaica (Gale), via Encyclopedia.com, opening paragraph. Accessed 2026-10-29.
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Cambridge University Library. Taylor-Schechter Genizah: A Priceless Collection. Cambridge University Library, the page. Accessed 2026-11-06.
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Abraham Ben-Yaacob and Amnon Netzer. Kurdistan. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Amedi (GeoNames 99612). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Bukhara (GeoNames 1217662). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Daniel Furman and Zvi Loker. Belgrade. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Belgrade (GeoNames 792680). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Jan Herman, Chaim Yahil, and others. Prague. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
David Corcos, Haim Saadoun, and Robert Attal. Algeria. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Simon Marcus and Yitzchak Kerem. Corfu. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Corfu (GeoNames 2463679). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Leah Bornstein-Makovetsky. Gallipoli. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Gelibolu (Gallipoli) (GeoNames 746983). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Cecil Roth, Vivian David Lipman, and others. England. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. City of London (GeoNames 2643741). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Lincoln (GeoNames 2644487). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. York (GeoNames 2633352). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Worcester (GeoNames 2633563). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Cambridge (GeoNames 2653941). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Zvi Loker. Monastir. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Bitola (Monastir) (GeoNames 792578). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Bernhard Blumenkranz, Lucien Steinberg, and Doris Bensimon-Donath. Paris. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Paris (GeoNames 2988507). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Haim Hillel Ben-Sasson and others. Poland. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com, The early settlements; 1569 to 1648; From Chmielnicki to the first partition; After partition. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Krakow (GeoNames 3094802). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Plock (GeoNames 3088825). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Isaiah Gafni and Yitzchak Kerem. Rhodes. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Rhodes (GeoNames 400666). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Simon Marcus. Thebes. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Bernhard Blumenkranz. Troyes. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Troyes (GeoNames 2971549). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yehuda Slutsky. Samarkand. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Budapest (GeoNames 3054643). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Rudolf Loewenthal. Kaifeng. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kaifeng (GeoNames 1804879). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Bernhard Blumenkranz and Moshe Catane. Alsace. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Haguenau (GeoNames 3014078). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Strasbourg (GeoNames 2973783). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Colmar (GeoNames 3024297). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mordechai Breuer, Stefan Rohrbacher, Eleanor Sterling-Oppenheimer, Jens Hoppe, and Henry Wasserman. Frankfurt on the Main. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Frankfurt am Main (GeoNames 2925533). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Prague (GeoNames 3067696). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Yomtov Ludwig Bato, Evelyn Adunka, and Israel O. Lehman. Vienna. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Vienna (GeoNames 2761369). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Joseph Meisl and others. Berlin. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Berlin (GeoNames 2950159). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Manisa (GeoNames 304827). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Tokat (GeoNames 738743). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Amasya (GeoNames 752015). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Vlorë (Valona) (GeoNames 3183719). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Simon Marcus and Yitzchak Kerem. Kavalla. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Kavala (Kavalla) (GeoNames 735861). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Benjamin Ravid. Venice. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Padua (GeoNames 3171728). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Gdansk (GeoNames 3099434). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Poznan (GeoNames 3088171). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kazimierz (GeoNames 3096401). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Sandomierz (GeoNames 759603). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Lviv (GeoNames 702550). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kamyanets-Podilskyi (GeoNames 706950). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Venice (GeoNames 3164603). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Aaron Lichtenstein, Reuven Nall, and others. Portugal. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Peloponnese (GeoNames 255620). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Algiers (GeoNames 2507480). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Simon Marcus and Yitzchak Kerem. Ioannina. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
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Steven Kaplan, Emanuela Trevisan Semi, and Howard M. Lenhoff. Beta Israel. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Gonder (GeoNames 336014). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Marrakesh (GeoNames 2542997). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Tetouan (GeoNames 2528910). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Safi (GeoNames 2537881). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Istanbul (GeoNames 745044). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Tripoli (GeoNames 2210247). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Simon Marcus and Yitzchak Kerem. Chios. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Attilio Milano, Alessandro Guetta, and Sergio DellaPergola. Leghorn. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Pisa (GeoNames 3170647). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mordechai Arbell. Valona. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Lublin (GeoNames 765876). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Volhynia (GeoNames 689067). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Podillia (GeoNames 696861). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Bratslav (GeoNames 711459). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Brest (GeoNames 629634). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Trakai (GeoNames 593871). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Livorno (GeoNames 3174659). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Gilbert Cahen and David Weinberg. Metz. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Metz (GeoNames 2994160). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Zvi Loker. Sarajevo. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Sarajevo (GeoNames 3191281). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
GeoNames. Eisenstadt (GeoNames 2780190). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Simon Marcus and Yitzchak Kerem. Naupaktos. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-11.
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Benjamin Schlesinger and Mordechai Arbell. Jamaica. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Mordechai Arbell. Barbados. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Bart Wallet, Jozeph Michman, and others. Amsterdam. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Mordechai Arbell. Curaçao. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Kingston (GeoNames 3489854). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Kyiv (GeoNames 703448). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Liverpool (GeoNames 2644210). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Guiana. Encyclopaedia Britannica, 8th ed., vol. 11 (Edinburgh, Adam and Charles Black, 1856); read in the Internet Archive's scan of the National Library of Scotland copy, 1856, the article GUIANA: its section on Dutch Guiana, or Surinam. Accessed 2026-11-11.
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GeoNames. Charleston (GeoNames 4574324). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Savannah (GeoNames 4221552). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Eliyahu Feldman and Theodor Lavi. Bessarabia. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Soroca (GeoNames 617367). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Arthur Cygielman, Danuta Dombrowska, and Stefan Krakowski. Cracow. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Vilnius (GeoNames 593116). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Hrodna (GeoNames 627904). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Minsk (GeoNames 625144). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
Simha Katz and Nathan Michael Gelber. Galicia. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Przemysl (GeoNames 761168). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Ternopil (GeoNames 691650). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Rohatyn (GeoNames 695559). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Lisbon (GeoNames 2267057). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-11.
Benzion Dinur and others. Odessa. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Dov Avron and Danuta Dombrowska. Poznan. Encyclopaedia Judaica, via Encyclopedia.com. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Tehran (GeoNames 112931). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Cincinnati (GeoNames 4508722). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Chicago (GeoNames 4887398). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Detroit (GeoNames 4990729). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Milwaukee (GeoNames 5263045). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Louisville (GeoNames 4299276). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. St. Louis (GeoNames 4407066). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. New Orleans (GeoNames 4335045). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. Minneapolis (GeoNames 5037649). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
GeoNames. San Francisco (GeoNames 5391959). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Chernihiv (GeoNames 710735). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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GeoNames. Copenhagen, Denmark (GeoNames 2618425). GeoNames gazetteer. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Ted J. Warner. Nevada, Pioneer Settlements in (Encyclopedia of Mormonism). Macmillan, New York, 1992, ed. Daniel H. Ludlow (a reference work produced at Brigham Young University); read in the Internet Archive's copy (August 28, 2024) of the online edition, 1992, the whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Charles S. Peterson. Arizona, Pioneer Settlements in (Encyclopedia of Mormonism). Macmillan, New York, 1992, ed. Daniel H. Ludlow (a reference work produced at Brigham Young University); read in the Internet Archive's copy (March 7, 2023) of the online edition, 1992, the whole entry. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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Howard Palmer. Card, Charles Ora (Dictionary of Canadian Biography, vol. 13). University of Toronto and Université Laval, 1994. Accessed 2026-11-07.
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How the regions are drawn

The tradition's account and historians' account

Regions by faith

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Judaism

Latter-day Saints

Events by faith

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Judaism

Latter-day Saints

Not yet sourced

Buddhism

Christianity

Hinduism

Islam

Judaism

Latter-day Saints

Follower counts, 1950 to 2020

How each faith is counted

World Religion Project, 1950 to 2000

Pew Research Center, 2010 and 2020

Base map

Sources

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